📚 A-Level Classical Civilisation⏱️ 50 min📊 Politics of the Late Republic
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you'll understand how Cicero's prosecution of Verres in 70 BC was a CAREER-DEFINING moment that established him as Rome's GREATEST ORATOR, demonstrated his tactical brilliance, and revealed the CORRUPTION of the Roman judicial system.
What Is In Verrem?
📜 THE BASICS
Title:In Verrem ("Against Verres") - also called the Verrines
Date: 70 BC — Trial took place in August
Type: Prosecution speech in an EXTORTION TRIAL
Defendant: Gaius Verres, former governor of Sicily (73-71 BC)
Prosecutor: Marcus Tullius Cicero (age 36)
Defendant's lawyer: Hortensius Hortalus — Rome's leading advocate
📚 Understanding the Two Parts
⚠️ CRITICAL TO UNDERSTAND: Most of what we read was NEVER SPOKEN in court!
The In Verrem we study consists of TWO completely different parts. Understanding this distinction is ESSENTIAL:
✓ ACTIO PRIMA (First Action)
THIS WAS ACTUALLY DELIVERED
Length: 56 sections (SHORT!)
When: August 70 BC in court
Purpose: Opening speech before calling witnesses
Strategy: Speed through to prevent delays
Result: Verres fled after 9 days!
📖 THIS IS YOUR PRESCRIBED TEXT
📝 ACTIO SECUNDA (Second Action)
NEVER DELIVERED - PUBLISHED LATER
Length: FIVE books (massive!)
When: Published AFTER Verres fled
Purpose: Literary showcase of Cicero's skills
Content: Detailed crimes, evidence, rhetoric
Result: Immortal rhetorical masterpiece
📚 Context for understanding trial
💡 Why Did Cicero Publish Undelivered Speeches?
After winning so quickly, Cicero PUBLISHED the five books he WOULD have delivered to: (1) Cement his reputation as Rome's GREATEST ORATOR, (2) Show off the depth of evidence he'd gathered, (3) Create a literary masterpiece studied for CENTURIES. It worked — we're still reading them 2,000 years later!
For your exam: Focus on the Actio Prima — that's what you might get excerpts from in 10-mark questions. Know its structure, arguments, and Cicero's tactical decisions. The Actio Secunda provides helpful CONTEXT about Verres' crimes, but isn't directly examined.
The Situation in 70 BC
Understanding the CONTEXT is crucial. This trial didn't happen in a vacuum — Rome was in political turmoil, and the courts were NOTORIOUSLY CORRUPT.
🏛️ POLITICAL BACKDROP
Pompey and Crassus = consuls — They'd just reversed Sulla's reforms, restoring tribunician power
Rome was CROWDED — Elections happening, Pompey holding games, perfect timing for a high-profile trial
Courts were HATED — Senatorial juries had recently ACQUITTED two obviously guilty governors
Public anger was INTENSE — People believed rich criminals could BUY their way out of any charge
"A belief has become established, which is both destructive for the republic, and dangerous for you. The rumour is spreading, not only among the Roman people, but also among foreign nations, that in these courts as they exist now, no wealthy man, however guilty he may be, can possibly be convicted."
— Cicero, In Verrem 1.1
Why the Sicilians Chose Cicero
✓ He'd been their QUAESTOR in 75 BC
✓ He'd governed HONESTLY (rare!)
✓ They TRUSTED him completely
✓ He had a reputation for INTEGRITY
Why This Mattered to Cicero
⚡ Chance to defeat HORTENSIUS
⚡ Establish himself as TOP ORATOR
⚡ Prove a novus homo could WIN
⚡ Show courts COULD work fairly
Critical question: Were Verres' actions actually TYPICAL of Roman governors? Many governors enriched themselves. BUT Verres was EXCESSIVE even by Roman standards — he BRAGGED about how much he'd stolen and HOW MUCH he'd set aside to bribe the courts. His ARROGANCE made him vulnerable.
What Did Verres Do?
Verres didn't just steal money — he SYSTEMATICALLY PLUNDERED Sicily for three years (73-71 BC). Cicero accused him of crimes ranging from extortion to the UNFORGIVABLE: crucifying Roman citizens.
💀 THE WORST CRIME: Crucifying Gavius
This was the charge that HORRIFIED Romans most. Verres CRUCIFIED a Roman citizen named Gavius WITHOUT TRIAL. Roman citizens had ABSOLUTE protection from this punishment — it was a SACRED RIGHT called provocatio.
As Gavius was being nailed to the cross, he kept shouting "I AM A ROMAN CITIZEN!" — but Verres ignored him. This single act made conviction certain.
Why this mattered so much: Roman citizenship meant LEGAL PROTECTION. No citizen could be executed without trial, and crucifixion was reserved for SLAVES and REBELS. By crucifying Gavius, Verres didn't just break the law — he VIOLATED the most fundamental right of Roman citizenship.
The Other Major Crimes
💰 EXTORTION (40 Million Sesterces!)
Cicero claimed Verres stole OVER 40 MILLION SESTERCES during his three-year governorship — around 10 million per year. This wasn't "normal" provincial profit-taking. This was INDUSTRIAL-SCALE THEFT that impoverished entire communities.
⚖️ JUDICIAL CORRUPTION
Verres SOLD VERDICTS in his court — the innocent were convicted if they couldn't pay, criminals were acquitted if they COULD. Justice became a commodity. Rich criminals walked free; poor innocents were punished.
🎨 ART THEFT & SACRILEGE
He PLUNDERED temples, public buildings, and private homes of their artworks and statues. Stealing from SACRED SHRINES was shocking sacrilege that offended Roman piety. Gods' property was being stolen by their supposed protector!
🌾 GRAIN EXTORTION
He imposed ILLEGAL TAXES on grain farmers, stealing their produce and selling it for personal profit. This hurt Rome's grain supply AND impoverished Sicilian farmers who were supposed to be Rome's ALLIES.
🎯 VERRES' "DEFENCE" STRATEGY
Verres didn't even TRY to deny the charges. His entire strategy was built on THREE pillars:
1. DELAY Until January
Push the trial from August to January when Metellus (his friend) would be consul, Metellus' brother would run the court, and another brother would govern Sicily (intimidating witnesses).
2. BRIBE the Jury
He'd allegedly set aside MILLIONS of sesterces specifically for bribing the senatorial jury. Money had bought verdicts before — why not now?
3. RELY on Hortensius
Rome's greatest advocate (and consul-elect) was defending him. Hortensius had NEVER lost an important case. His eloquence was legendary.
Verres' arrogant boast (according to Cicero): "I've stolen enough to satisfy myself, my advocates, AND the judges. I'm safe."
"He frequently says that 'he who has only stolen enough for himself should be afraid, but this man has stolen enough to satisfy everyone; nothing is so holy that it cannot be corrupted, nor anything so fortified that it cannot be conquered by money.'"
— Cicero, In Verrem 1.4
For your exam: Know that the CRUCIFIXION was the most shocking crime. But also understand Verres' THREE-PART defence strategy (delay, bribe, Hortensius) — because Cicero's entire speech is designed to COUNTER these tactics.
The MASSIVE Problems Cicero Faced
This wasn't a fair fight. Verres had EVERY advantage. To understand Cicero's brilliance, you need to grasp just how STACKED the odds were against him.
⚠️ The Three Major Obstacles
1. THE TIMELINE TRAP
The trial was scheduled for AUGUST. But if it dragged past December into JANUARY, everything changed:
JANUARY = GAME OVER for Cicero:
►Metellus becomes CONSUL (Verres' close friend)
►Metellus' brother #1 becomes GOVERNOR of Sicily (can intimidate witnesses)
►Metellus' brother #2 becomes PRAETOR in charge of extortion court
►Hortensius becomes CONSUL (and can use political power)
2. THE CORRUPTION MACHINE
Verres had MILLIONS of sesterces set aside specifically for BRIBING:
► The senatorial JURY (who'd be sympathetic to a fellow senator anyway)
► Court OFFICIALS to manipulate scheduling and procedures
► WITNESSES to disappear or change testimony
Two obviously guilty governors had been ACQUITTED recently. Everyone knew the courts were corrupt.
3. HORTENSIUS HORTALUS
Rome's GREATEST ADVOCATE. Consul-elect. NEVER LOST an important case.
Cicero was challenging the man who'd DOMINATED Roman courts for a generation. Hortensius was expecting to deliver weeks of speeches — he was a master of delay and eloquent oratory.
🎯 The Strategic Battle
Both sides had ONE objective: control the TIMELINE. Everything else flowed from this.
❌ VERRES' TACTICS
GOAL: Delay until January
►Bribed to get favourable trial date
►Planted FALSE PROSECUTOR to waste time with fake case
►Occupied court with another trial to delay proceedings
►Relied on games/holidays — 40+ days of interruptions coming!
►EXPOSE the bribery plot publicly in opening speech
►Pressure the JURY — link to recent scandals
►Present case while Rome CROWDED — maximum public scrutiny
"Your plan is to begin to respond to me after two sets of games have passed; mine is to have the adjournment over before the first set has even begun. The result will be that your plan is thought to be clever, but this action of mine necessary."
— Cicero, In Verrem 1.34
💡 Cicero's MASTERSTROKE
He ABANDONED traditional oratory format entirely. Instead of weeks of speeches and counter-speeches, he delivered ONE short opening statement then called witnesses IMMEDIATELY. This meant: (1) Verres couldn't delay, (2) Hortensius couldn't respond with eloquent speeches, (3) Evidence overwhelmed the defence BEFORE games could interrupt, (4) Everything finished in just 9 days. BRILLIANT.
For your exam: Understand that Cicero's ENTIRE SPEECH is shaped by the need for SPEED. Every section, every argument, every rhetorical choice is designed to prevent Verres from delaying until January. This tactical context explains WHY the speech is structured the way it is.
Structure of the Actio Prima (First Action)
The Actio Prima is the ONLY speech Cicero actually delivered. It's surprisingly SHORT — only 56 sections. Why? Because Cicero WASN'T trying to make a grand oration. He was trying to OVERWHELM Verres before he could escape.
📊 The Big Picture: Three-Part Structure
Before diving into details, understand the OVERALL STRATEGY. The speech has THREE main movements:
PART 1: Attack the SYSTEM
Sections 1-10
This trial isn't just about Verres — it's about whether senatorial courts can be TRUSTED at all. Exposes corruption and the bribery plot.
PART 2: Attack VERRES
Sections 11-32
Summary of Verres' entire criminal career — from quaestor to governor. Shows a PATTERN of betrayal, theft, and murder. Reveals the delaying conspiracy.
PART 3: Challenge the JURY & JUDGE
Sections 33-56
Direct challenge to Hortensius, the jury, and the presiding judge (Glabrio). Lists recent scandals. Warns this is their LAST CHANCE to restore credibility. Promises to prove EVERYTHING with immediate evidence.
The strategic logic: First make acquitting Verres POLITICALLY IMPOSSIBLE (Part 1), then show he's MORALLY GUILTY (Part 2), then pressure the jury to DO THE RIGHT THING (Part 3). It's brilliant psychological manipulation.
🔍 Detailed Section-by-Section Breakdown
Now let's zoom in on each section. You don't need to memorise all this, but understand the FLOW and KEY ARGUMENTS:
📋 THE STRUCTURE (Sections 1-56)
§1-3: Opening — The Courts Are on Trial
Cicero frames this as BIGGER than just Verres — this trial will determine whether senatorial courts can be TRUSTED at all. Public believes rich criminals can't be convicted.
§4-10: Verres' Corruption and Tactics
Exposes Verres' BRIBERY schemes and his ARROGANT boasting about buying the verdict. Shows the plot to delay the trial. Names specific amounts of money set aside for bribes.
§11-15: Verres' Criminal Career
Quick summary of his ENTIRE corrupt career — quaestor (robbed Carbo), lieutenant (plundered Asia), praetor (destroyed temples), governor (ruined Sicily). A pattern of BETRAYAL and THEFT.
§16-23: The Delaying Plot Revealed
Cicero EXPOSES the conspiracy to delay until January when Metellus and his allies control everything. Names names. Shows the congratulations after consular elections. Reveals bribery attempt for aedileship.
§24-32: Cicero's Response Strategy
Explains why he's ABANDONING long speeches for immediate witness testimony. Addresses the jury and judge DIRECTLY. Promises this is about more than one man — it's about judicial integrity.
§33-43: Challenging Hortensius and the Courts
Direct attack on judicial corruption. Lists recent SCANDALS (senators taking bribes, acquitting criminals). Warns the jury this is their LAST CHANCE to restore credibility. Challenges Hortensius directly.
§44-53: Appeal to the Judge (Glabrio)
Personal appeal to the PRAETOR presiding over the trial — reminds him of his family's reputation (father passed the Acilian law on extortion) and his DUTY to justice. Pressure to be fair.
§54-56: Conclusion — Bring on the Evidence!
Promises to prove EVERYTHING with witnesses and documents. Explains his innovative witness-first method. Ends with: "I have spoken" (Dixi) — then IMMEDIATELY calls witnesses. No time for Hortensius to respond!
"I will adopt this course... that is, to call the witnesses immediately. What you will recognise as new from me, O judges, is that I will arrange my witnesses so that the whole accusation is explained."
— Cicero, In Verrem 1.55
Why this structure WORKED: By the time Cicero finished this speech, the jury had heard: (1) Evidence of MASSIVE corruption, (2) Proof of a conspiracy to RIG THE TRIAL, (3) A direct challenge to their INTEGRITY. They couldn't acquit Verres without OBVIOUSLY being corrupt themselves. Brilliant psychological trap.
For your exam: Remember the THREE-PART STRUCTURE (Attack System, Attack Verres, Challenge Jury). This shows you understand the overall strategy, not just isolated details. Quote any of the section summaries above to show detailed knowledge.
Cicero's Rhetorical Strategies
In Verrem is a MASTERCLASS in persuasive techniques. But theory is useless without examples. Let's see how Cicero ACTUALLY uses these techniques in the speech.
🎯 The Three Modes of Persuasion
🎯 ETHOS (Credibility)
Cicero establishes himself as a MAN OF PRINCIPLE fighting for justice against corruption. He's the HONEST provincial governor vs the CORRUPT elite.
😤 PATHOS (Emotion)
Appeals to the jury's SHAME, ANGER at corruption, and FEAR of losing credibility. Paints vivid pictures of suffering Sicilians.
📊 LOGOS (Logic)
Overwhelming DOCUMENTATION. Account books, letters, witness testimony. The evidence is UNDENIABLE — convicting Verres is the only LOGICAL choice.
💡 Key Rhetorical Devices — SEE THEM IN ACTION
1. AMPLIFICATION — Making Stakes BIGGER
Not just "Verres is corrupt" but "the ENTIRE JUDICIAL SYSTEM is on trial." Raises everything to MAXIMUM importance.
"In this time of crisis for your order and your judgements... I have brought a man before you whose case will enable you to restore the lost reputation of your courts, return to favour with the people of Rome, and satisfy foreign nations."
— §1.2 — Notice how he makes it about the WHOLE senatorial order, not just one trial
2. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS — Forcing Agreement
Questions where the answer is OBVIOUS, forcing the jury to mentally agree with Cicero's position.
"What genius is so great, what ability or means of speaking is able in any way to defend the life of that man, convicted as he is of so many vices and crimes?"
— §1.10 — The implied answer: "NO ONE could defend him"
3. DIRECT ADDRESS — "O Judges"
Constantly speaks to jury as "O Judges" (O Iudices), making it PERSONAL and creating intimacy. You're not watching a speech — you're being TALKED TO.
"The thing which was desired most of all, O Judges, and which alone was thought to be the foremost factor in allaying the unpopularity of your order... seems to have been offered to you."
— §1.1 — Used 30+ times throughout the speech
4. CONTRAST — Setting Up Opposites
Honest Cicero vs corrupt Verres; virtuous ancestors vs degenerate present; justice vs bribery. Makes choices STARK.
"If you come to a decision about this man rightly and conscientiously, then that authority which ought to remain within you, will still cling to you; but if that man's enormous riches shatter the sanctity and honesty of the courts..."
— §1.3 — Right decision vs wrong decision, clearly laid out
5. ANAPHORA — Powerful Repetition
Repeating the same word/phrase at the start of successive clauses to build INTENSITY and RHYTHM.
"No legal decision was concluded... No man's property was safe... No god was left for the Sicilians..."
— §1.13 — The repetition of "No" builds a devastating picture of total lawlessness
6. APPEAL TO TRADITION & ANCESTORS
Romans REVERED their ancestors. Cicero constantly invokes what "your fathers" established to make acquittal SHAMEFUL.
"Accept the cause of the law courts... Call to mind the Acilian law passed by your father, by which the Roman people enjoyed the very best decisions."
— §1.51 — Speaking to Judge Glabrio, reminding him of his father's legacy
🎭 THE ULTIMATE TECHNIQUE: Public Pressure
Cicero's MOST POWERFUL weapon isn't any single device — it's making the jury feel like EVERYONE IS WATCHING. He reminds them constantly:
Rome is CROWDED for elections and games — maximum public attention
Foreign nations are watching — provinces need to believe in Roman justice
The Roman people will judge THEM based on this verdict
History will remember what they do RIGHT NOW
"This is a trial in which you will be judging the defendant, and the Roman people will be judging you." (§1.47)
For your exam: Don't just LIST techniques — SHOW how Cicero uses them with SPECIFIC EXAMPLES. Quote §1.2 (amplification), §1.10 (rhetorical questions), §1.47 (public pressure), or §1.51 (appeal to ancestors). This demonstrates detailed textual knowledge!
What Happened to Verres?
🏆 TOTAL VICTORY
After just NINE DAYS of witness testimony (following Cicero's opening speech), Verres' defence COLLAPSED. Hortensius couldn't respond. Verres FLED INTO EXILE before the verdict — an admission of GUILT. Cicero had won without even delivering his full speeches!
But the REAL victory wasn't just defeating Verres — it was what came AFTER.
📈 IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES
CICERO'S REPUTATION SOARED — He'd beaten Hortensius and was now Rome's LEADING ORATOR
Seen as "A MAN OF PRINCIPLE" — The honest advocate who couldn't be bought
LEX AURELIA PASSED — Judicial reform! Juries now shared between senators AND equites (Cicero's ideal: concordia ordinum)
Bridge between classes — Cicero was seen as defender of BOTH senatorial dignity AND equestrian interests
Political capital — Sicilians provided grain for his aedileship; increased support for praetor and consul elections
✅ For Cicero's Career
✓ Established as TOP orator
✓ Proved novus homo could compete
✓ Built reputation for INTEGRITY
✓ Gained political momentum
✓ Created powerful gratitude from Sicily
✅ For Roman Politics
✓ Reformed judicial system
✓ Restored SOME public faith in courts
✓ Showed corruption COULD be fought
✓ Embarrassed senatorial elite
✓ Set precedent for prosecution
"I promise the Roman people that this will be the most honourable and most noble function of my aedileship. I am advising, and I am warning... those men who are accustomed to putting down, or accepting, or guaranteeing, or promising money... to stay well clear of this trial."
— Cicero, In Verrem 1.36-37
⚠️ The irony: Cicero PUBLISHED the five undelivered speeches of the Actio Secunda to cement his reputation. These became literary masterpieces studied for CENTURIES — even though they were never spoken in court! Cicero turned his courtroom victory into an IMMORTAL showcase of his rhetorical genius.
🎯 WHY THIS MATTERS FOR YOUR EXAM
In Verrem shows:
How Cicero used ORATORY as political power
The CORRUPTION of late Republican courts
Cicero's tactical BRILLIANCE under pressure
His commitment to concordia ordinum (judicial reform benefited BOTH senators and equites)
How a novus homo could challenge the elite and WIN