CRITICAL TO UNDERSTAND: Most of what we read was NEVER SPOKEN in court! The In Verrem we study consists of TWO completely different parts. Understanding this distinction is ESSENTIAL.
THIS WAS ACTUALLY DELIVERED
NEVER DELIVERED - PUBLISHED LATER
After winning so quickly, Cicero PUBLISHED the five books he WOULD have delivered to:
It worked - we're still reading them 2,000 years later!
Critical question: Were Verres' actions actually TYPICAL of Roman governors? Many governors enriched themselves. BUT Verres was EXCESSIVE even by Roman standards - he BRAGGED about how much he'd stolen and HOW MUCH he'd set aside to bribe the courts. His ARROGANCE made him vulnerable.
Verres didn't just steal money - he SYSTEMATICALLY PLUNDERED Sicily for three years (73-71 BC). Cicero accused him of crimes ranging from extortion to the UNFORGIVABLE: crucifying Roman citizens.
This was the charge that HORRIFIED Romans most. Verres CRUCIFIED a Roman citizen named Gavius WITHOUT TRIAL. Roman citizens had ABSOLUTE protection from this punishment - it was a SACRED RIGHT called provocatio.
As Gavius was being nailed to the cross, he kept shouting "I AM A ROMAN CITIZEN!" - but Verres ignored him. This single act made conviction certain.
Cicero claimed Verres stole OVER 40 MILLION SESTERCES during his three-year governorship - around 10 million per year. This wasn't "normal" provincial profit-taking. This was INDUSTRIAL-SCALE THEFT that impoverished entire communities.
Verres SOLD VERDICTS in his court - the innocent were convicted if they couldn't pay, criminals were acquitted if they COULD. Justice became a commodity. Rich criminals walked free; poor innocents were punished.
He PLUNDERED temples, public buildings, and private homes of their artworks and statues. Stealing from SACRED SHRINES was shocking sacrilege that offended Roman piety. Gods' property was being stolen by their supposed protector!
He imposed ILLEGAL TAXES on grain farmers, stealing their produce and selling it for personal profit. This hurt Rome's grain supply AND impoverished Sicilian farmers who were supposed to be Rome's ALLIES.
Verres didn't even TRY to deny the charges. His entire strategy was built on THREE pillars:
Push the trial from August to January when Metellus (his friend) would be consul, Metellus' brother would run the court, and another brother would govern Sicily (intimidating witnesses).
He'd allegedly set aside MILLIONS of sesterces specifically for bribing the senatorial jury. Money had bought verdicts before - why not now?
Rome's greatest advocate (and consul-elect) was defending him. Hortensius had NEVER lost an important case. His eloquence was legendary.
This wasn't a fair fight. Verres had EVERY advantage. To understand Cicero's brilliance, you need to grasp just how STACKED the odds were against him.
The trial was scheduled for AUGUST. But if it dragged past December into JANUARY, everything changed:
JANUARY = GAME OVER for Cicero:
Verres had MILLIONS of sesterces set aside specifically for BRIBING:
Two obviously guilty governors had been ACQUITTED recently. Everyone knew the courts were corrupt.
Rome's GREATEST ADVOCATE. Consul-elect. NEVER LOST an important case.
Cicero was challenging the man who'd DOMINATED Roman courts for a generation. Hortensius was expecting to deliver weeks of speeches - he was a master of delay and eloquent oratory.
GOAL: Delay until January
GOAL: Finish BEFORE games start
He ABANDONED traditional oratory format entirely. Instead of weeks of speeches and counter-speeches, he delivered ONE short opening statement then called witnesses IMMEDIATELY. This meant:
BRILLIANT.
The Actio Prima is the ONLY speech Cicero actually delivered. It's surprisingly SHORT - only 56 sections. Why? Because Cicero WASN'T trying to make a grand oration. He was trying to OVERWHELM Verres before he could escape.
Sections 1-10
This trial isn't just about Verres - it's about whether senatorial courts can be TRUSTED at all. Exposes corruption and the bribery plot.
Sections 11-32
Summary of Verres' entire criminal career - from quaestor to governor. Shows a PATTERN of betrayal, theft, and murder. Reveals the delaying conspiracy.
Sections 33-56
Direct challenge to Hortensius, the jury, and the judge (Glabrio). Lists recent scandals. Warns this is their LAST CHANCE to restore credibility.
Why This Structure WORKED: By the time Cicero finished this speech, the jury had heard: (1) Evidence of MASSIVE corruption, (2) Proof of a conspiracy to RIG THE TRIAL, (3) A direct challenge to their INTEGRITY. They couldn't acquit Verres without OBVIOUSLY being corrupt themselves. Brilliant psychological trap.
In Verrem is a MASTERCLASS in persuasive techniques. But theory is useless without examples. Let's see how Cicero ACTUALLY uses these techniques in the speech.
Cicero establishes himself as a MAN OF PRINCIPLE fighting for justice against corruption. He's the HONEST provincial governor vs the CORRUPT elite.
Appeals to the jury's SHAME, ANGER at corruption, and FEAR of losing credibility. Paints vivid pictures of suffering Sicilians.
Overwhelming DOCUMENTATION. Account books, letters, witness testimony. The evidence is UNDENIABLE - convicting Verres is the only LOGICAL choice.
Not just "Verres is corrupt" but "the ENTIRE JUDICIAL SYSTEM is on trial." Raises everything to MAXIMUM importance.
Questions where the answer is OBVIOUS, forcing the jury to mentally agree with Cicero's position.
Constantly speaks to jury as "O Judges" (O Iudices), making it PERSONAL and creating intimacy. You're not watching a speech - you're being TALKED TO.
Honest Cicero vs corrupt Verres; virtuous ancestors vs degenerate present; justice vs bribery. Makes choices STARK.
Repeating the same word/phrase at the start of successive clauses to build INTENSITY and RHYTHM.
Romans REVERED their ancestors. Cicero constantly invokes what "your fathers" established to make acquittal SHAMEFUL.
Cicero's MOST POWERFUL weapon isn't any single device - it's making the jury feel like EVERYONE IS WATCHING. He reminds them constantly:
"This is a trial in which you will be judging the defendant, and the Roman people will be judging you." (1.47)
TOTAL VICTORY: After just NINE DAYS of witness testimony (following Cicero's opening speech), Verres' defence COLLAPSED. Hortensius couldn't respond. Verres FLED INTO EXILE before the verdict - an admission of GUILT. Cicero had won without even delivering his full speeches!
The Irony: Cicero PUBLISHED the five undelivered speeches of the Actio Secunda to cement his reputation. These became literary masterpieces studied for CENTURIES - even though they were never spoken in court! Cicero turned his courtroom victory into an IMMORTAL showcase of his rhetorical genius.
In Verrem shows: