📚 A-Level Classical Civilisation⏱️ Reference Guide📊 Prose Literature
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The Trial That Saved the Republic (and Cicero's Career)
70 BC: One corrupt governor, one young prosecutor, and the fate of Roman justice
In 70 BC, Cicero prosecuted Gaius Verres for extortion during his governorship of Sicily. This wasn't just about one corrupt governor — it was about whether Rome's courts could deliver justice, whether the Senate deserved its judicial power, and whether Cicero himself could become Rome's leading advocate.
🎯 What You Need to Know
This guide covers Cicero's opening speech (the Actio Prima). The other five speeches were published but never delivered because Verres fled into exile before the trial concluded.
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For 10-Mark Questions
Analyse HOW Cicero presents Verres, the courts, or the Republic
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For Essay Questions
Use evidence to support arguments about Cicero's purposes and priorities
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How to Use This Guide
Use the sidebar to navigate between sections. Reference events, arguments, and examples rather than chapter numbers. For instance: "When Cicero describes Verres boasting that money can conquer anything..." or "Cicero's description of Sicily's devastation shows..."
Remember: You're analysing Cicero's arguments and rhetoric, not memorising quotes. Focus on WHAT he claims and HOW he presents it.
🏛️ Historical Context
The Crisis of 70 BC
Since Sulla's reforms (81 BC), senators had exclusive control of law courts. By 70 BC, there was a widespread belief that wealthy criminals could simply bribe their way out of any conviction. Public anger was reaching breaking point.
Cicero's opening claim: There's a rumour spreading throughout the Roman world that no wealthy man, however guilty, can be convicted in the current courts.
The stakes: This trial will either restore the courts' reputation or prove they're irredeemably corrupt.
Who Was Gaius Verres?
Verres had been governor of Sicily from 73-71 BC. Cicero presents him as systematically corrupt throughout his entire career:
As quaestor: robbed his own consul (Carbo) and betrayed him
As lieutenant: pillaged Asia and Pamphylia, betrayed his commander (Dolabella)
As praetor in Rome: destroyed public works and temples
As governor of Sicily: systematically extorted, stole, executed citizens, and left the province in ruins
⚠️ Why Cicero Took the Case
Cicero was 36 years old and facing Rome's most famous advocate (Hortensius) in defence. But victory would establish him as Rome's leading prosecutor and boost his political career.
He'd also been quaestor in Sicily himself (75 BC), so the Sicilians trusted him to represent them effectively.
The Defence's Strategy
Verres and his defenders tried to delay the trial until January 69 BC, when:
Hortensius would be consul (more influence)
A friendly praetor (Metellus) would oversee extortion trials
The jury would change, potentially allowing easier bribery
💡 Cicero's Tactical Innovation
Cicero abandoned the traditional format (long opening speech, then witnesses). Instead, he gave a brief opening explaining his strategy, then immediately called witnesses.
Why? To prevent delays. Get the evidence out quickly before Verres' team can obstruct. This speech is essentially saying: "Here's what I'm going to prove, here's why I'm doing it this way, and here come the witnesses."
The Outcome
After this opening speech and the initial testimony, Verres realised he'd be convicted. He fled Rome before the verdict, choosing exile over a trial he couldn't win.
Cicero then published the remaining speeches (what he would have said) to ensure maximum political benefit from the victory. His reputation soared.
🎯 Key Themes in the Speech
Understanding the major themes helps you answer essay questions about Cicero's purposes and priorities. Use these to find evidence throughout the speech.
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Theme 1: The Crisis of the Courts
Is senatorial justice possible?
Cicero repeatedly emphasises that the trial is testing the entire judicial system, not just judging one man. If Verres is acquitted despite overwhelming evidence, it proves the courts are broken.
Where to find this:
→ Opening: courts have reputation for corruption; divine opportunity to restore them
→ Cicero's mission: positions himself as enemy of judicial corruption
→ Past corruption: lists other cases where juries were bribed (coloured tablets!)
→ Public pressure: Senate must redeem itself or lose judicial authority entirely
→ Watching world: foreign allies sent embassies; Roman people will judge the judges
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Theme 2: Republic vs Individual Corruption
Verres threatens Rome's empire and Republican values
Cicero presents Verres not just as one corrupt individual, but as someone whose crimes damage Rome's Republican institutions and betray the empire's relationship with its subjects. The question becomes: is this just about punishing Verres, or about saving Rome itself?
🌾 Sicily's Complete Devastation
Cicero describes Sicily as "utterly impossible to restore to its previous state" and says it can "scarcely be revived even through many years of virtuous governance". This isn't just theft — it's systematic destruction of a province.
For essays: Shows Verres didn't just harm individuals but destroyed Rome's ability to govern effectively. Sicily was a major grain supplier — its ruin threatens Rome's food supply and imperial credibility.
👥 Executing Roman Citizens Without Trial
Cicero claims Roman citizens were "tortured and killed like slaves" — a direct violation of their fundamental legal protections. Roman citizenship was supposed to guarantee the right to trial and appeal to Rome.
For essays: This shows Verres treated Roman law as meaningless. It threatens the value of citizenship itself — if citizens can be executed arbitrarily in provinces, what does Roman citizenship mean? This isn't just corruption, it's undermining a core Republican principle.
🤝 Allies Treated as Enemies
Cicero says "the most faithful allies were included in the number of enemies". Rather than protecting Sicily (Rome's ally), Verres exploited it. Cicero even suggests allies might ask Rome to abolish extortion trials entirely since the trials just enable governors to steal more (they know they need to set aside money for bribes).
For essays: This reveals a crisis in Rome's imperial system. If allies prefer no trials to corrupt trials, Rome's justice system is actively harming the empire. Verres becomes a symbol of why provinces might eventually rebel.
😰 Intimidating Witnesses During the Trial
Even during the trial itself, Verres' supporters (the Metellus brothers — one consul-elect, one praetor-elect, one governor of Sicily) summoned Sicilian witnesses and told them resistance was futile. Consul Quintus Metellus told them: one of us is consul, one is praetor for extortion cases, one governs your province.
For essays: Shows corruption isn't just Verres — it's systemic. Elite Romans use their power to obstruct justice. The conspiracy extends beyond one criminal to protect the whole system of provincial exploitation.
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Theme 3: Wealth Above Law
Can money buy immunity from justice?
Central question: can extreme wealth place someone above justice? Cicero presents Verres as someone who believes — and has planned — to buy his way out of any consequences.
💬 Verres' Boast: Money Conquers Everything
Cicero reports that Verres says: "Nothing is so holy that it cannot be corrupted, nor anything so fortified that it cannot be conquered by money." This isn't Cicero's accusation — it's supposedly Verres' own words, showing his contempt for Roman values.
For essays: By quoting Verres directly, Cicero makes him condemn himself. Verres isn't just corrupt — he's proud of it, openly mocking the idea that anything (even religion: "nothing so holy") can resist wealth. This turns the trial into a test of whether he's right.
📊 The Three-Year Plan
Cicero reveals that Verres told people in Sicily (with witnesses present) that he had divided up his three years of plunder strategically:
1️⃣
Year One
For himself and his family
2️⃣
Year Two
For his patrons and legal defenders
3️⃣
Year Three
Reserved for bribing the judges
For essays: This is perhaps the most damning evidence because it shows premeditation. Verres didn't steal opportunistically — he calculated exactly how much he needed to steal to ensure acquittal. The mathematical precision makes it worse: he's turned corruption into a business model. It also shows the trial itself was corrupted before it began.
💼 Bags of Sicilian Money
Cicero describes how bags of money from Sicily were distributed in Rome. A senator received them to distribute amongst the jury. Some bags were even labelled for use in Cicero's own aedile election — Verres tried to bribe voters to block Cicero from winning office.
For essays: Makes the bribery concrete and systematic, not just abstract corruption. The labelled bags show organisation; trying to block Cicero's election shows Verres using money to silence anyone who threatens him. It extends beyond the courtroom to electoral politics.
🎯 Hiring an Expert Briber
Cicero reveals that a man named Quintus Verres (of the Romilian tribe) was hired specifically for his expertise in electoral bribery. He was promised 500,000 sesterces to ensure Cicero failed to become aedile. Cicero calls him "well-practised in the best method of bribery."
For essays: Shows there are professional bribers in Rome — corruption is so normalised it's a specialist skill. Also shows Verres' wealth allows him to hire the best in every corrupt field. The casual mention of "best method" suggests everyone knows how bribery works.
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Theme 4: Popular vs Elite Politics
Cicero walks a tightrope
Cicero must defend the people's interests and respond to public anger about corruption, whilst simultaneously trying to preserve senatorial judicial authority. If he fails, the Senate loses control of the courts entirely.
🙏 Divine Mission to Save the Senate
Cicero claims the case was offered "by divine influence" as an opportunity to "allay the unpopularity of your order" (the senatorial order). He frames himself as prosecuting not to attack the Senate, but to save it from its own corrupt members.
For essays: Shows Cicero positioning himself as the Senate's saviour, not enemy. By convicting Verres, senators can prove they're capable of self-policing. It's a conservative argument wrapped in popularis action — prosecuting one senator to save senatorial power.
🗳️ The Roman People Saved Cicero
When Verres tried to bribe voters to block Cicero's election as aedile, Cicero says the Roman people's "most generous goodwill" ensured he wasn't deprived of his honour. Despite the money against him, ordinary voters supported him.
For essays: Cicero presents himself as having popular legitimacy — the people chose him despite elite corruption. This gives him moral authority beyond his official position. It also shows ordinary Romans can resist bribery when they care enough, undermining Verres' claim that money conquers everything.
⚡ Popular Demand for Reform
Cicero explains that when people demanded restoration of tribunician power (which Sulla had removed), they weren't really asking for tribunes — they were demanding justice. Corrupt courts made people want an alternative system entirely.
For essays: Shows public pressure threatening senatorial control. The trial happens in this context of potential constitutional change. If senators don't deliver justice now, they'll lose the right to judge. Cicero makes the verdict about institutional survival.
🎖️ Pompey and Catulus Admit the Crisis
Cicero cites two respected figures: Pompey (consul) said in his first speech that courts had become "disgraceful and wicked" and promised reform. Catulus (senior statesman) admitted senators oversee courts "badly and shamefully."
For essays: Uses elite voices to validate popular complaints. Even leading senators admit the system is broken. This prevents opponents from dismissing criticism as mere populism — the Senate's own leaders acknowledge the crisis. Makes reform seem inevitable unless this trial proves otherwise.
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Theme 5: Cicero's Personal Character
Throughout, Cicero constructs himself as hardworking, brave, and principled — the moral opposite of Verres and his corrupt defenders.
📚 Diligence and Preparation
Cicero emphasises he investigated all of Sicily in just 50 days, examining records and interviewing victims in every community. He contrasts this with the defence's fake investigator who supposedly went to Achaia but didn't even reach Brundisium (the port you'd leave from). For essays: Shows Cicero earned his authority through work, whilst opponents rely on procedural tricks. Makes him trustworthy.
⚔️ Courage Under Threat
Claims he faced "traps by land and sea" during his investigation. Says he's more afraid in court than he was during the dangerous investigation. For essays: Presents prosecuting as an act of bravery. Makes courtroom corruption seem as dangerous as physical violence, elevating the stakes.
🎯 Managing Multiple Pressures
Cicero was running for aedile during the trial. Verres tried to bribe voters to block him. Cicero had to manage both his candidacy and the prosecution simultaneously whilst opponents tried to distract him. For essays: Makes him seem competent under pressure, able to multitask whilst enemies attack. Also shows how desperate Verres was to stop him.
⚡ Relentless Commitment
Promises to be a "harsh and unrelenting adversary" to corruption. Says "my life shall fail before my strength and perseverance" in prosecuting wickedness. Claims this as his mission for his upcoming aedileship. For essays: Positions prosecution as lifelong commitment, not one case. Makes him seem driven by principle, not ambition. (Though obviously he's ambitious too!)
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Theme 6: The Conspiracy Revealed
Systematic corruption beyond one man
Cicero exposes a web of corruption involving electoral manipulation, bribery, witness intimidation, and procedural obstruction. Verres isn't acting alone — the elite are protecting him.
🎉 The Congratulation Scene
After Hortensius won the consulship, he was being escorted home by a crowd. In that crowd was senator Gaius Curio, who spotted Verres. Curio called out to Verres, congratulated him loudly, and said: "I tell you, you have been acquitted by today's comitia [election]."
For essays: This public declaration reveals the conspiracy. Hortensius becoming consul means Verres is safe — they're not even trying to hide it. The casual openness shows how normalised corruption is. This moment crystallises for Cicero how the system works.
👔 The Metellus Family Plot
Three Metellus brothers are perfectly positioned: Quintus Metellus = consul-elect, Marcus Metellus = praetor-elect (who will oversee extortion trials after January), Lucius Metellus = new governor of Sicily (replacing Verres). Quintus summoned Sicilian witnesses and told them resistance is futile.
For essays: Shows corruption is familial and systemic. The three brothers control consul, courts, and the province — every pressure point. Verres can delay until January when friendly officials take office. It's not one corrupt individual, it's the elite class protecting its own.
💼 Bags of Money and Electoral Bribery
Bags of Sicilian money were sent to a senator for distribution. Some were labelled for Cicero's aedile election. Quintus Verres (the bribery expert) was hired with 500,000 sesterces. Cicero got a tip-off from someone who attended the secret meeting where money was distributed to representatives of all the tribes.
For essays: Corruption is organised like a business. Secret meetings, labelled funds, hired specialists, tribal representatives. It's not spontaneous — it's professional criminality. The tip-off shows even participants sometimes have conscience (or fear).
⏰ The Delay Strategy
Defence wants to delay until after January because: the jury changes (can bribe new judges), Marcus Metellus takes over extortion trials (friendly praetor), games provide excuses for adjournments. They want responses delayed until 40 days have passed and accusations go cold.
For essays: Shows corruption extends to manipulating procedure itself. They don't just bribe judges — they control when trials happen, who presides, which jurors serve. The entire system is compromised, not just individuals. This is why Cicero abandons traditional format to rush through witnesses.
📝 Using Themes in Essays
For "To what extent" questions, decide which themes are primary and which are secondary. E.g., for "Is this more about the Republic than Verres?", you might argue that Themes 1 and 2 (courts/Republic) frame the speech whilst Themes 3 and 6 (wealth/conspiracy) provide the evidence.
Reference events and claims: "Cicero's description of Sicily's devastation demonstrates..." or "When Cicero reveals the three-year plan, he shows..."
👥 Key People in the Speech
The Main Players
Gaius Verres (The Defendant)
Governor of Sicily 73-71 BC. Cicero presents him as corrupt from his first office onwards — a lifelong criminal who believes money can buy anything. Confident, boastful about his crimes, and systematically corrupt across every position he's held.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (The Prosecutor)
36 years old, building his reputation. Presents himself as hardworking, prepared, and principled. Standing for aedile during the trial. Positions himself as defender of justice against elite corruption.
Manius Acilius Glabrio (The Judge)
The praetor presiding over the trial. Cicero appeals to his integrity, family reputation (his father passed the law on extortion), and duty. Presented as an honest man who must live up to his ancestors.
Quintus Hortensius Hortalus (Lead Defence)
Just elected consul. Rome's most famous orator. Cicero presents him as part of the corrupt elite using his position to shield criminals. His election is treated as dangerous for justice.
The Metellus Family (The Conspiracy)
Marcus Metellus
Praetor-elect who will take over extortion trials in January. Close to Verres. His election celebrated as good news for Verres.
Quintus Metellus (Consul-elect)
Brother of Marcus. Summoned Sicilian witnesses to intimidate them, telling them one brother is consul, one is praetor handling extortion trials, and the third is Sicily's new governor — resistance is futile.
Lucius Metellus
Third brother, succeeding Verres as Sicily's governor. Used to pressure witnesses.
Supporting Cast
Gaius Curio
Senator who publicly congratulated Verres after Hortensius' election, saying "you're acquitted by today's vote." This incident triggered Cicero's realisation of the conspiracy's scale.
Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey)
Consul of 70 BC. Cicero cites his admission that courts are disgraceful and need reform. Represents broader political pressure for judicial change.
Quintus Catulus
Senior statesman who admitted the Senate oversees courts "badly and shamefully." Used as authority for need for reform.
Verres' Earlier Victims
Gnaeus Carbo
Consul robbed by Verres when Verres was his quaestor. Shows Verres' corruption started early — he betrayed and plundered his own superior.
Gnaeus Dolabella
Commander betrayed by Verres during his lieutenancy. Verres not only deserted him but attacked him when he was vulnerable.
Places That Matter
Sicily: The province Verres devastated. Represents Rome's relationship with its allies. Described as completely ruined, "utterly impossible to restore," and "scarcely able to be revived even through many years of virtuous governance."
Asia and Pamphylia: Earlier provinces Verres pillaged during his lieutenancy. Shows his crimes weren't limited to Sicily — it's a pattern.
⚖️ Verres' Crimes: A Complete Criminal
Cicero doesn't just accuse Verres of a few crimes — he presents him as someone who has never done anything right. Here are the categories of wrongdoing.
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Financial Crimes
Systematic Extortion from Sicily
40 million sesterces stolen over three years through "new and nefarious" tax systems. Farmers' property seized through corruption.
Robbing His Own Commanders
As quaestor: robbed Consul Carbo. As lieutenant: pillaged Asia and Pamphylia. Corruption from day one.
Judicial Corruption
Legal decisions made only "in accordance with his will." Criminals bought acquittals, honest men convicted without defence.
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Religious Sacrilege
Temple Robbery
Plundered "all the shrines consecrated by the holiest rites." Left no god untouched if their statue showed artistic merit.
Stripping Historical Monuments
Stole monuments built by ancient kings and Roman generals. Treated public heritage as personal plunder.
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Violence Against Citizens
• Executing Roman citizens "like slaves"
• Treating allies as enemies
• Sexual misconduct against families
🏴☠️
Military Failure
• Cities left open to pirates
• Fleet destroyed through negligence
• Soldiers starved to death
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Betrayal Throughout His Career
As Quaestor
Robbed his own consul (Carbo). Betrayed and deserted him. Violated religious duties.
As Lieutenant
Betrayed commander Dolabella. "Not only deserted him at a time of peril, but even attacked and betrayed" him.
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Corrupting the Trial Itself
The Three-Year Plan
1️⃣
Year 1 For himself
2️⃣
Year 2 For patrons
3️⃣
Year 3 For judges
Electoral Bribery
Bags of money to block Cicero's election
Trial Manipulation
Delaying for friendly officials
🎯 Cicero's Strategy
The point isn't just that Verres committed many crimes — it's that he's comprehensively corrupt. From his first office through every position, he betrayed, stole, killed, and corrupted.
Cicero asks: what defence could possibly save someone "convicted of so many vices and crimes"?
💬 How Cicero Argues: Rhetorical Techniques
For 10-mark questions asking "HOW" Cicero presents something, identify specific techniques and explain their effects. Don't just label them — show what they achieve.
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Building Character (Ethos)
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Hardworking
50 days investigating vs fake investigator who didn't reach Brundisium
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Principled
Enemy of corruption; promises relentless prosecution
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Underdog
Facing famous Hortensius, Metellus family, enormous wealth
💡 The Effect
Creates trust through demonstrated effort. Makes Cicero sympathetic (underdog fighting corruption) whilst establishing moral authority (principled defender of justice).
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Emotional Appeals (Pathos)
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Fear & Crisis
If Verres is acquitted, Republic is doomed, courts abolished, senatorial authority lost. Uses "crucial time," "crisis," "dangerous."
Makes judges feel verdict has massive consequences
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Outrage at Audacity
Verres boasts openly! Says money can conquer anything! Congratulation scene where Curio publicly declares "you're acquitted."
Provokes anger at shamelessness
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Pity
Sicily "impossible to restore"; families violated; honest men exiled
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Honour
Can restore senatorial honour or confirm corruption; people watching
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Logical Arguments (Logos)
If-Then Reasoning
If acquit → courts corrupt → lose authority
Evidence-Based
Witnesses, documents, records vs money
Historical Precedent
Past bribery cases prove system broken
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Rhetorical Questions
"What genius could defend him?"
→ Implies indefensible
"Will Sicily's presence influence nothing?"
→ Highlights absurdity of ignoring evidence
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Repetition & Contrast
Hammering Rhythm
"No legal decision... No man's property... Countless sums... The most faithful allies..." Creates overwhelming scale through repetition.
Key Phrases Repeated
"Money" appears constantly. "The Roman people" emphasises scrutiny. Reinforces main themes.
Cicero vs Hortensius
Hardworking with evidence vs powerful with empty rhetoric. Makes trial a moral battle.
Justice vs Money
Evidence/witnesses/law contrasted with wealth/bribery/corruption throughout.
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Using the Villain's Words
"Nothing is so holy that it cannot be corrupted, nor anything so fortified that it cannot be conquered by money"
Verres' own boast condemns him. More powerful than accusations.
"I tell you, you have been acquitted by today's comitia"
Curio's direct speech makes conspiracy vivid and undeniable.
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Other Techniques to Spot
Divine Authority
Case offered "by divine influence"
Storm Imagery
"Most violent gusts of the storm"
Praeteritio
"Prevented by shame from mentioning..."
🎓 For 10-Mark Analysis
Identify 3-4 techniques and explain their effect. Don't just name them!
Example: "Cicero uses repeated rhetorical questions to force the audience to conclude Verres is indefensible. By asking 'what genius could defend him?', he makes conviction seem inevitable rather than just asserting guilt."
📋 How the Speech Is Organised
Understanding structure helps you see Cicero's strategic thinking. This isn't a traditional prosecution speech — it's adapted for speed.
The Overall Movement
Opening: The Stakes
This trial will determine the fate of senatorial courts and Republican justice. Verres is wealthy and confident; courts are on trial as much as he is. Divine opportunity to restore honour.
Early Middle: Verres' Confidence
Explains how Verres has planned bribery and obstruction. His confidence comes from money, not innocence. The boast that money can conquer anything.
Middle: The Criminal Career
Chronological tour through Verres' offices showing lifelong corruption. Sicily's devastation described in detail. Shows comprehensive, systematic criminality.
Later Middle: The Conspiracy Revealed
Exposes the plot to delay trial: fake investigations, Hortensius' election, congratulation scene, Metellus family taking power. Shows systematic judicial corruption.
Later Middle: Detailed Evidence
Specific bribery plots: bags of Sicilian money, electoral bribery against Cicero, witness intimidation. Makes conspiracy concrete and personal.
Response: Cicero's Strategy
Explains why he's abandoning traditional format: must finish before games, before friendly officials take office. Positions this as battle against elite corruption.
Broadening: Systemic Crisis
Catalogues other judicial corruption cases. Emphasises popular anger and demand for reform (Pompey, tribunician power, public opinion).
Closing Appeals: Duty and Honour
Direct appeals to judicial integrity. Special focus on praetor Glabrio's family duty. Promises relentless prosecution.
Conclusion: Immediate Action
Reaffirms determination to proceed immediately. Explains witness-first strategy. Summarises charge. Abrupt ending: "I have spoken."
The Rhythm: Macro ↔ Micro
Notice how Cicero alternates between BROAD themes (Republic, justice, courts) and SPECIFIC evidence (crimes, plots, money):
Early-Middle: Specific — Verres' career, crimes, boasts
Middle: Specific — Conspiracy details, bribery, intimidation
Later: Broad — Systemic corruption, popular anger, reform pressure
Near End: Broad — Judges' duty, family honour, watching world
Ending: Specific — Procedure, evidence, witnesses, "I have spoken"
This creates rhythm: keeps alternating between "this matters for Rome" and "here's exactly what Verres did." Prevents speech from being either too abstract or too detailed.
Key Structural Moments
The Grand Opening
"The thing which was desired most of all..." — immediately establishes divine providence and maximum stakes. Not just a trial, but a moment of destiny.
The Congratulation Scene
Sudden shift into narrative: "But look!" The moment Curio congratulates Verres is the turning point where Cicero realised the conspiracy's scale. Makes corruption vivid through specific event.
Regaining Initiative
"After I was freed from that great anxiety..." — transition from defensive (protecting his aedileship) to offensive (exposing their plots). Cicero stops reacting and starts attacking.
The Strategic Declaration
"Your plan is to begin responding after games have passed; mine is to have adjournment over before they begin." Explicit contrast of strategies makes courtroom battle immediate and clear.
The Divine Appeal
"By the immortal gods, O Judges..." — religious appeal marks shift to final persuasion. Invokes divine opportunity for redemption.
Procedural Innovation
"I will adopt this course..." — explains witness-first strategy, making clear this speech is just the opening move. Not a full case, just setting up.
Abrupt Ending
"I have spoken" — no traditional emotional conclusion. Businesslike. He's getting straight to witnesses. Shows urgency and confidence.
What's Missing (Deliberately)
Cicero deliberately omits traditional elements to save time:
Detailed narration of events — saved for witness testimony
Extended proof sequences — evidence will come from witnesses
Elaborate emotional ending — no time, just "I have spoken"
Extended defence of his qualifications — mostly implied
⚠️ This Is Just the Opening
This speech is the setup, not the conclusion. Cicero is signalling his strategy and evidence, forcing Verres to react. The real detail was meant to come from witnesses.
After this speech and initial testimony, Verres fled. So whilst Cicero "won," we're studying what is essentially a threat and preview rather than a complete prosecution.
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For Essay Use
Understanding structure helps you see Cicero's priorities. If asked "Is this more about the Republic than Verres?", you can point out that Republic-focused passages frame the beginning and end (establishing stakes, appealing to duty), whilst Verres-specific content dominates the middle. This suggests the Republic provides the why whilst Verres provides the what.
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You're Ready to Analyse In Verrem!
You now have a complete reference guide covering context, themes, people, crimes, rhetoric, and structure.
Remember:
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Reference events and arguments, not chapter numbers
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Focus on WHAT Cicero claims and HOW he presents it
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Always explain the EFFECT of rhetorical techniques
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Use this guide to find evidence for essay arguments
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Consider where in the speech's structure things appear