How three men seized legal power to reshape Rome—and why the Republic's greatest orator paid with his life.
Learning Objectives
What You'll Learn
How the Second Triumvirate differed from the First Triumvirate
Why the proscriptions were so devastating to the Roman elite
The circumstances and symbolism of Cicero's death
What Cicero's murder meant for Republican resistance
The Failure of Rhetoric
Cicero's campaign against Antony, for all its eloquence, ended in FAILURE. The Philippics could not change the fundamental reality:
Real power lay not in senatorial rhetoric but in the loyalty of armies.
By the end of 43 BC, the men with LEGIONS, not the men with SPEECHES, would determine Rome's future.
Formation of the Second Triumvirate
In November 43 BC, Antony and Octavian met at Bononia and agreed to set aside their rivalry.
THE LEX TITIA (November 27, 43 BC)
Created the Triumvirate for the Reconstitution of the State (Tresviri Rei Publicae Constituendae).
This was not an informal arrangement—it was a LEGALLY SANCTIONED office with powers exceeding any magistracy.
Powers of the Triumvirs
Extraordinary Powers
Propose and pass laws without senatorial approval
Appoint magistrates to all offices
Command armies across the empire
Conduct trials without appeal
Proscribe enemies—condemn to death
Duration and Scope
Initially granted for five years
Later renewed until 33 BC
Authority over all Roman territories
Control of state treasury
Power to make war and peace
The Three Triumvirs
⭐
Octavian
Caesar's Heir
LEGITIMACY
⚔️
Mark Antony
The Soldier
MILITARY POWER
🤝
Lepidus
The Mediator
LEGIONS IN GAUL
First vs. Second Triumvirate
First Triumvirate (60-53 BC)
INFORMAL—a private agreement
No legal status or recognition
Could not openly overrule the Senate
Had to work THROUGH existing institutions
Second Triumvirate (43-33 BC)
LEGAL—established by law
Official magistracy with defined powers
Could pass laws WITHOUT the Senate
REPLACED existing institutions
Key Distinction: The First Triumvirate had to work AROUND the law; the Second Triumvirate WAS the law.
The Proscriptions of 43 BC
A BRUTAL POLITICAL PURGE unlike anything since Sulla's dictatorship.
How the Proscriptions Worked
Public lists naming enemies of the state
Those named were stripped of citizenship
Their property was confiscated
They could be killed on sight by anyone
Bounties were offered for their heads
Anyone who sheltered them faced death
The Scale of Horror
"There was no safety anywhere. Slaves betrayed masters, sons betrayed fathers, wives betrayed husbands. The whole city was filled with the bodies of the slain."
— Appian, Civil Wars
Ancient sources claim 300 senators and 2,000 equestrians were proscribed. Even if exaggerated, the proscriptions devastated the Roman elite.
Why Cicero Was Targeted
Antony's Hatred
The Philippics had:
Called Antony a drunken thug
Accused him of tyrannical ambitions
Mocked his intelligence
Urged the Senate to destroy him
Antony wanted REVENGE.
Octavian's Betrayal
Octavian had once been Cicero's ALLY:
Initially RESISTED proscribing Cicero
But Antony made it a condition
Octavian ultimately ACQUIESCED
He sacrificed his mentor for power
The Bargain
"Octavian is said to have resisted for two days, but on the third day he gave up Cicero."
— Plutarch, Life of Cicero
The Cruelty of Politics: Cicero had believed he could manipulate Octavian as "a young man to be praised, honoured, and disposed of." Instead, Octavian disposed of Cicero.
Cicero's Final Days
When the proscription lists were published, Cicero attempted to flee to Macedonia. He was 63 years old.
The Flight
Left his villa at Tusculum heading for the coast
Changed his mind several times about where to go
Reached his villa at Formiae
Was carried in a litter toward the sea
His slaves spotted soldiers approaching...
7 December 43 BC
"Cicero, hearing the commotion, ordered his slaves to set down the litter. He looked steadily at his murderers. His head was unwashed, his face haggard with worry. Most of those present covered their faces while Herennius cut off his head."
— Plutarch, Life of Cicero
Cicero's Final Words
"There is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly."
The Mutilation and Display
Herennius cut off Cicero's head and BOTH HANDS. These were brought back to Rome and presented to Mark Antony.
The Symbolism
The hands that WROTE the Philippics
The tongue that SPOKE against Antony
The head that THOUGHT of resistance
Displayed where Cicero had TRIUMPHED
Fulvia's Desecration
SPAT on his head repeatedly
Pulled out the tongue
PIERCED it with her hairpins
Mocked the organ that attacked her husband
Desecration
"When Cicero's head was brought to Antony, he gazed at it with delight and ordered it to be placed above the Rostra, where Cicero had so often been heard speaking against him. And Fulvia took the head in her hands, and spitting on it, pulled out the tongue and pierced it with the pins she used for her hair."
— Dio Cassius, Roman History
The End of Republican Resistance
Cicero's death was more than the murder of one man. It marked the SYMBOLIC END OF REPUBLICAN RESISTANCE.
What Died With Cicero
The voice of the Republic: Rome's greatest orator silenced forever
The dream of concordia: His vision of Senate and equites died with him
Meaningful opposition: No one else dared speak against the Triumvirs
The power of words: Proscriptions proved speech was powerless against swords
Exit Question 1
What was the key difference between the First and Second Triumvirates?
The First Triumvirate (60-53 BC) was an INFORMAL, private agreement with no legal status—the three men had to work through existing institutions. The Second Triumvirate (43-33 BC) was a LEGAL magistracy established by the Lex Titia, giving them official power to pass laws without the Senate, appoint magistrates, and proscribe enemies. The Second Triumvirate effectively REPLACED the Republic rather than bypassing it.
Exit Question 2
Why were the proscriptions so effective as a political weapon?
The proscriptions worked on multiple levels: they ELIMINATED political opponents by stripping them of legal protection and offering bounties for their heads; they TERRORISED potential opposition into silence; they FUNDED the Triumvirs' armies through confiscated property; and they REWARDED supporters with the wealth and positions of the proscribed. The system made betrayal profitable—slaves, sons, and wives turned in family members for rewards, destroying trust throughout Roman society.
Exit Question 3
Why did Octavian agree to Cicero's proscription despite their previous alliance?
Octavian faced a brutal political calculation: Antony DEMANDED Cicero's death as the price of the alliance, and Octavian needed Antony's military strength to defeat Brutus and Cassius. Though Octavian reportedly resisted for two days, he ultimately chose POWER over loyalty. This cold decision revealed the ruthlessness that would eventually make him emperor. Cicero had fatally misjudged Octavian, thinking the young man could be manipulated to serve Republican ends.
Exit Question 4
What was the symbolism of displaying Cicero's head and hands on the Rostra?
The Rostra was the speaker's platform where Cicero had delivered his greatest speeches, including the Philippics against Antony. Displaying his severed HEAD and HANDS there was a brutal symbolic reversal: the hands that had WRITTEN the attacks and the tongue that had SPOKEN them were now silenced on the very spot where they had once triumphed. It sent a clear message that RHETORIC was powerless against military force.
Exit Question 5
Why is Cicero's death considered the "symbolic end of Republican resistance"?
Cicero was Rome's greatest orator and the most prominent voice for Republican ideals still active in Rome. His death meant: (1) The VOICE of the Republic was silenced—no one else could speak with his authority; (2) His vision of CONCORDIA between Senate and equites died with him; (3) MEANINGFUL OPPOSITION in Rome became impossible—the proscriptions proved that words were powerless; (4) After his death, Republican resistance was limited to the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who would be defeated at Philippi in 42 BC.
Key Takeaways
Summary
The Second Triumvirate (43 BC) was a LEGAL arrangement, unlike the informal First Triumvirate
The Lex Titia gave Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus power to pass laws, appoint magistrates, and PROSCRIBE enemies
The proscriptions killed thousands, many for their wealth rather than politics
Cicero was killed on 7 December 43 BC; his head and hands were displayed on the Rostra
His death marked the SYMBOLIC END of Republican resistance