Fourteen speeches of devastating rhetoric against Mark Antony—and why they would cost Cicero his life.
Learning Objectives
What You'll Learn
Why Cicero chose to attack Mark Antony through public oratory
The rhetorical strategies employed in the Philippics
How Cicero attempted to coordinate Republican resistance through his letters
Why his political calculations ultimately proved fatal
Cicero's Return to Politics
Cicero returned to active politics with renewed vigour after Caesar's death. Believing the Republic could still be saved, he threw himself into attacking Mark Antony.
The Political Situation
The conspirators failed to seize control
Antony secured Caesar's papers and treasury
Octavian arrived claiming Caesar's legacy
The Senate was caught between factions
Cicero's Calculation
Rally the Senate against Antony
Use Octavian as a tool of the Senate
Restore traditional Republican government
Position himself as the Republic's champion
Why "Philippics"?
Key Context: The name "Philippics" deliberately echoes Demosthenes' famous speeches against Philip of Macedon in the 4th century BC. By choosing this title, Cicero positioned himself as a defender of liberty against tyranny.
Just as Demosthenes warned Athens about Philip's ambitions, Cicero warned Rome about Antony's threat to Republican freedom.
The Philippics: Themes and Purpose
Named after Demosthenes' speeches, Cicero's 14 Philippics were fierce attacks on Antony's character, motives, and actions.
Cicero's Objectives
Accused Antony of tyrannical ambitions
Portrayed Antony as a drunken, corrupt thug
Appealed to Octavian and the Senate to defend the Republic
Rallied the Senate to declare Antony a public enemy (hostis)
Cicero's Invective
"In what assembly of the Roman people, in what meeting, in what dinner party even of those people who used to wish you well, have you ever seen Mark Antony sober? ... He vomits over the whole tribunal!"
— Cicero, Philippic 2.63
Such personal attacks were standard in Roman political invective—designed to destroy an opponent's public standing.
The Art of Invective
Moral Attacks
Drunkenness
Sexual impropriety
Greed and corruption
Cowardice in battle
Political Charges
Tyrannical ambitions
Forging Caesar's decrees
Illegally seizing power
Threatening civil war
Rhetorical Techniques
Vivid imagery
Appeals to tradition
Contrast with heroes
Emotional manipulation
Personal Attack
"You took up the garb of a man when you immediately became a woman. At first you were a common prostitute; the price of your shame was fixed—and not a small one either."
— Cicero, Philippic 2.44
Oratorical Insight: Such invective follows established Roman conventions. These accusations were rhetorical strategy rather than factual reporting.
Fatal Miscalculation
Cicero's Fatal Error: He famously said of Octavian that the young man should be "praised, honoured, and removed" (laudandum, ornandum, tollendum).
This proved to be a catastrophic misjudgement—Octavian was building his own power base, not serving the Senate's interests.
Cicero Assumed:
Octavian would remain a Senate tool
The Senate could still act decisively
Oratory could defeat armies
Reality:
Octavian had his own ambitions
Military force trumped all
Words were powerless against legions
Assessment Note
Source Evaluation
The Philippics are excellent sources for understanding Republican ideology and the rhetoric of political crisis. However, they must be read critically as highly partisan documents designed to persuade rather than provide balanced accounts.
The exaggerations and fabrications are part of the rhetorical strategy, not historical fact.
Letters to Provincial Governors
Cicero's correspondence shows his intense political scheming. He urged Trebonius and Plancus to coordinate action against Antony.
Gaius Trebonius
Governor of Asia
One of Caesar's assassins
Cicero sought his support
Killed by Dolabella in 43 BC
Lucius Plancus
Governor of Transalpine Gaul
Commanded significant forces
Proved a political weathervane
Eventually sided with Antony
Cicero's Appeal
"I beg and beseech you to give all your thought, all your care, all your zeal to the preservation of the Republic... The Senate is the champion of the state."
— Cicero, Letters to Friends
The Reality: Cicero's optimism often seemed out of step with realities. Octavian was clearly building a personal power base, and the Senate remained divided.
The Value of Cicero's Letters
As Historical Sources
Immediacy: Written in the moment, without hindsight
Candour: More honest than published speeches
Network: Reveal the web of political connections
Emotion: Show the anxiety and hope of participants
Source Value: Unlike the polished Philippics, the letters offer more candid assessments, revealing private doubts alongside public confidence.
The Tragic End
When Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate in late 43 BC, they drew up proscription lists. Cicero was high on Antony's list.
The Proscriptions: Each triumvir sacrificed his own allies to satisfy the others' vengeance. Octavian surrendered Cicero to Antony's hatred—despite everything Cicero had done to support him.
Cicero's Death — 7 December 43 BC
The Final Moments
Caught near Formiae while fleeing by sea
Carried in a litter when soldiers caught up
Stretched out his neck, accepting his fate
The centurion Herennius struck off his head
His hands were also cut off—the hands that wrote the Philippics
Desecration
"Fulvia took the head into her hands and, after abusing it and spitting on it, set it on her knees, opened the mouth, and pulled out the tongue, which she pierced with the pins she used for her hair."
— Dio Cassius, Roman History
His head and hands were displayed on the Rostra—the very platform from which he had delivered so many famous speeches.
Historical Significance
The End of an Era
Cicero's death marked the effective end of the Roman Republic as a system where oratory and persuasion could influence political outcomes. The future would belong to those who commanded legions, not those who commanded words.
Yet his writings survived to become foundational texts of Western political thought.
Exit Question 1
Why did Cicero name his speeches against Antony "the Philippics"?
Cicero deliberately chose the name to echo Demosthenes' famous speeches against Philip of Macedon in the 4th century BC. By using this name, Cicero positioned himself as a defender of liberty against tyranny, just as Demosthenes had been. It was a rhetorical strategy to frame Antony as a tyrant threatening Roman freedom.
Exit Question 2
What rhetorical techniques did Cicero use to attack Antony?
Cicero employed classic Roman invective rhetoric, including: (1) moral attacks accusing Antony of drunkenness, sexual impropriety, and greed; (2) political charges of tyranny and forging Caesar's decrees; (3) vivid, disgusting imagery; (4) contrasts with traditional Roman virtues; and (5) emotional manipulation. These were standard conventions designed to destroy Antony's public standing.
Exit Question 3
What was Cicero's fatal political miscalculation regarding Octavian?
Cicero believed Octavian could be used as a tool of the Senate and then discarded. He famously said Octavian should be "praised, honoured, and removed." In reality, Octavian was building his own power base. When Octavian joined the Second Triumvirate, Cicero's fate was sealed—he was sacrificed to Antony's vengeance.
Exit Question 4
How do Cicero's letters differ from his Philippics as historical sources?
The Philippics are polished public speeches designed to persuade—highly partisan and full of rhetorical exaggeration. Cicero's letters offer more candid assessments written in the moment without hindsight. They reveal private doubts alongside public confidence and show the web of political connections. However, the letters still reflect Cicero's biases and often show him misjudging situations.
Exit Question 5
What does Cicero's death symbolise about the transformation of Roman politics?
Cicero's death symbolised the end of the Roman Republic as a system where oratory and persuasion could influence political outcomes. The display of his head and hands on the Rostra was a brutal message that words no longer held power. The future would belong to those who commanded legions, not rhetoric. Cicero had lived by words and died because of them.
Key Takeaways
Summary
The Philippics were 14 speeches attacking Mark Antony, modelled on Demosthenes
Cicero used invective rhetoric—personal attacks on character and morality
His letters reveal desperate attempts to coordinate Republican resistance
Cicero fatally miscalculated Octavian's ambitions
When the Second Triumvirate formed, Cicero was proscribed and killed
His death symbolised the end of the Republic as a system where words could defeat swords