📚 A-Level Classical Civilisation⏱️ 35 min📊 Politics of the Late Republic
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The Man Who Learned From Everyone
How Caesar synthesised every path to power
By 60 BC, Rome had seen several figures try different approaches to power — and fail. Gaius Julius Caesar watched them all, learnt from their mistakes, and systematically built expertise in every area that mattered. He combined military glory, popular support, rhetorical skill, elite connections, and financial resources into a complete power base that the Republic couldn't contain.
🎯 What You Need to Know
This lesson covers Caesar's early life and career up to 60 BC only — before the First Triumvirate (Topic 4). You'll understand his family background, key offices, military successes, popularis methods, and how he positioned himself as the ultimate synthesis of every Republican politician.
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The Complete Politician
Mastered every skill: oratory, law, military command, popular politics, elite networking
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The Synthesis
Combined strengths of Pompey, Crassus, Cicero whilst avoiding their weaknesses
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Why Caesar Was Different
Caesar didn't invent new methods. He studied his contemporaries and avoided their mistakes. Pompey alienated the Senate? Caesar built elite alliances. Crassus lacked glory? Caesar conquered Spain. Cicero had no army? Caesar built veteran loyalty. Cato was inflexible? Caesar compromised when useful.
👶 Family Background & Early Life
Gaius Julius Caesar was born on 12 or 13 July 100 BC into a patrician family — but not a particularly powerful one.
The Julii claimed descent from Iulus (Ascanius), son of Aeneas, making them theoretically descendants of the goddess Venus. This gave Caesar enormous symbolic capital — but his family had been politically inactive for generations. They had prestige without power.
🔗 Key Family Connections
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The Marius Connection
Through his aunt Julia
Caesar's aunt Julia married Marius (Topic 2.2), the great popularis general. This connected Caesar to popularis politics from birth and gave him military connections — but also made him suspect to optimates who hated Marius's legacy.
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Marriage to Cornelia (84 BC)
Age 16
At age 16, Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of Cinna — Marius's ally and a radical popularis who dominated Rome 87-84 BC. This doubled down on Caesar's popularis identity during dangerous times.
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Sulla's Proscriptions (82-81 BC)
When Sulla seized Rome and began executing populares supporters, Caesar was a marked man. Sulla ordered him to divorce Cornelia — Caesar refused. He had to flee Rome and hide in the countryside.
Sulla eventually pardoned him, reportedly saying: "I see many Mariuses in this young man." Caesar learnt early that principle could be deadly — but also that backing down was worse.
⚔️ Early Career: Building Every Skill (80-60 BC)
After Sulla's death (78 BC), Caesar began his career properly. Unlike others who specialised, Caesar pursued every available avenue to prominence — military, legal, popular, elite, and financial.
📅 Key Moments
80-78 BC
Military Service — Asia & Cilicia
Caesar won the civic crown (corona civica) for saving a fellow soldier's life at the siege of Mytilene. This was Rome's second-highest military honour, giving him early credibility with soldiers.
77 BC
First Legal Cases
Prosecuted Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella for provincial extortion. He lost, but gained attention for his clear, direct, forceful speaking style — different from Cicero's elaborate oratory.
75 BC
The Pirates Incident
Captured by Cilician pirates who demanded 20 talents ransom. Caesar told them he was worth 50 talents. Whilst captive, he joked that he'd return and crucify them — which he did, after raising a fleet and hunting them down. This story spread widely, showing his resourcefulness, confidence, and ruthlessness.
73-70 BC
Military Tribune
As military tribune, Caesar publicly advocated for restoring tribunician powers (which Sulla had stripped). This aligned him with popularis causes whilst building military contacts.
69 BC
Quaestor in Spain
Serving as quaestor in Further Spain, Caesar reportedly saw a statue of Alexander the Great and wept — he was 30 and had achieved nothing, whilst Alexander had conquered the world by that age. This competitive drive would define his career.
65 BC
Aedile — Spectacular Games
Put on the most lavish games Rome had ever seen, featuring 320 pairs of gladiators in silver armour. Went massively into debt (borrowing from Crassus) but gained enormous popularity. Also restored monuments to Marius, making a bold popularis statement.
63 BC
Pontifex Maximus
Won election as Pontifex Maximus (chief priest), defeating two senior ex-consuls. This lifelong religious position gave him authority independent of annual magistracies. He'd borrowed so much for bribes that defeat would have meant ruin.
62 BC
Praetor
As praetor, Caesar oversaw courts and gained legal expertise. Navigated the Bona Dea scandal carefully — when Clodius was caught infiltrating women-only rites, Caesar divorced his wife Pompeia, saying "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion" (protecting his reputation whilst staying neutral).
61-60 BC
Propraetor in Spain
As governor of Further Spain, conducted successful military campaigns, enriching himself and his soldiers. Wrote directly to the Senate requesting a triumph and permission to stand for consul in absentia. The Senate (led by Cato) blocked both.
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What Caesar Had Achieved by 60 BC
✓ Military credibility
Civic crown, Spanish victories
✓ Popular support
Games, popularis symbolism
✓ Religious authority
Pontifex Maximus for life
✓ Financial backing
Crassus's loans (3.4)
🗺️ Spain & the Path to the Consulship
Caesar's governorship of Further Spain (61-60 BC) was crucial. It gave him everything he still lacked: wealth, military glory, and loyal soldiers.
⚔️ The Spanish Campaign
Caesar conducted aggressive campaigns against Lusitanian tribes, subduing resistance and capturing towns. He shared plunder generously with his soldiers (like Marius before him — Topic 2.2), creating personal loyalty. He also settled disputes between Spanish communities, showing administrative competence alongside military skill.
🎁 What Caesar Gained
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Wealth
Enough to pay off massive debts and fund future campaigns
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Glory
Victories worthy of a triumph celebration
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Loyalty
Soldiers who'd follow him based on generosity
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Reputation
Proven governor who could command and enrich Rome
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The Senate Blocks Him
Caesar requested permission to celebrate a triumph and stand for consul in absentia (without entering Rome).
Led by Cato (3.5), the Senate refused. They forced Caesar to choose: triumph or consulship.
Caesar's choice: He gave up the triumph and entered Rome to stand for consul. This showed his priorities — power over glory.
🤝 The Solution: A Private Agreement
By 60 BC, three men wanted things the Senate wouldn't give:
Pompey (3.4): Wanted land for his veterans and ratification of his Eastern settlement — Senate blocked him
Crassus (3.4): Wanted tax relief for publicani (tax collectors) who'd overpaid for Asian contracts — Senate blocked him
Caesar: Wanted the consulship but was outspent by optimate rivals — risked losing
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Caesar's Masterstroke
Caesar proposed a private agreement: if all three worked together, they could force the Senate to comply. Pompey had prestige, Crassus had money, Caesar had energy and political skill.
This is where we stop for now. The formation and workings of the First Triumvirate (59 BC onwards) will be covered in Topic 4. But by 60 BC, Caesar had positioned himself as the indispensable mediator between Rome's two most powerful men.
📜 Popularis Methods — Learning from the Gracchi
Like the Gracchi before him (Topic 2.1), Caesar used popularis methods — appealing directly to the people and using tribunician power to bypass the Senate. But he learnt from their fatal mistakes.
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RECALL: Popularis Politics
The Gracchi (133-121 BC) pioneered taking legislation directly to popular assemblies, bypassing senatorial opposition. Caesar watched how this worked — and how it got them killed. His innovation was to use popularis methods whilst building elite alliances, rather than fighting the Senate alone.
📊 Caesar's Popularis Actions (to 60 BC)
73-70 BC
Supporting Tribunician Power
As military tribune, Caesar publicly advocated for restoring tribunician powers that Sulla had stripped away. This aligned him with popularis tradition and gained popular support.
65 BC
Restoring Marius's Monuments
As aedile, Caesar secretly had monuments to Marius restored and displayed in the Forum overnight. When optimates protested, crowds defended them. This was a bold popularis statement, reclaiming Marius's legacy (Topic 2.2).
63 BC
Opposing Excessive Punishment
During the Catilinarian conspiracy debate, Caesar argued against executing citizens without trial (even conspirators). He positioned himself as defender of citizen rights against optimate severity.
62 BC
Supporting Land Reform
As praetor, Caesar quietly supported tribunician land reform proposals. He learnt to work through proxies rather than making himself the target.
💡 What Caesar Learnt
From the Gracchi ✓
✓ Use popular support as leverage
✓ Champion citizen rights and benefits
✓ Bypass Senate when necessary
✓ Build a loyal constituency
Caesar's Innovation ⚡
✗ DON'T fight the Senate alone
✓ Build alliances with powerful men
✗ DON'T make yourself the target
✓ Use proxies and coalitions
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The Key Difference
The Gracchi were idealists who genuinely wanted to reform the Republic. Caesar was a pragmatist who used popularis methods as tools for personal advancement.
Did Caesar believe in popular sovereignty? Maybe. But more importantly, he understood that popular support gave him power the Senate couldn't take away — as long as he also had military force (which the Gracchi lacked).
🎯 The Complete Politician: Comparing Caesar to Others
By 60 BC, Caesar had systematically built competence in every area that mattered in Roman politics. He studied his contemporaries (all from Topic 3) and avoided their weaknesses.
📊 Caesar vs The Others
⚔️Pompey (3.4) — Military Genius, Political Novice
Strengths: Brilliant general, massive military prestige, loyal veterans
Weaknesses: No army, dependent on goodwill, vulnerable to those with military power
Caesar learnt: Rhetoric is powerful but words need backing by force. Combine oratory with legions.
🏛️Cato (3.5) — Principle Without Pragmatism
Strengths: Moral authority, incorruptible reputation, represented Republican ideals
Weaknesses: Inflexible, created deadlock, refused all compromise, made enemies unnecessarily
Caesar learnt: Principle is admirable but obstruction creates enemies. Be flexible enough to achieve goals.
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Caesar's Synthesis
By 60 BC, Caesar had combined:
✓ Military credibility
Spain, civic crown, loyal soldiers
✓ Financial resources
Spanish plunder + Crassus's backing
✓ Oratorical skill
Clear, forceful speaking style
✓ Popular support
Popularis methods, generous games
✓ Religious authority
Pontifex Maximus for life
✓ Elite connections
Alliances with Pompey & Crassus
Most importantly: Caesar understood that power came from combining these elements. Each reinforced the others. Military success funded political campaigns. Popular support intimidated opponents. Financial resources bought loyalty. Elite alliances protected against isolation.
⚠️ Why This Mattered for the Republic
The Gracchi failed because they fought alone. Pompey struggled because he was politically naive. Crassus lacked military prestige. Cicero lacked force. Cato lacked flexibility.
Caesar studied all of them and built a complete power base that couldn't be attacked from any single direction. By 60 BC, blocking him would require the Senate to unite completely — which Cato's inflexibility had made impossible.
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The Danger
Republican institutions were designed to prevent any one person from accumulating too much power. Caesar's genius was to master every form of power simultaneously. By 60 BC, the Republic had no mechanism to contain him — because he'd systematically learnt how to circumvent every check and balance.
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Topic 3 Complete!
You've now studied all the major figures from 78-60 BC and understand how they shaped Roman politics:
✓ Cicero — The opportunist orator
✓ Pompey — The rule-bending general
✓ Crassus — The wealthy patron
✓ Cato — The inflexible idealist
✓ Caesar — The complete synthesis
Next: Topic 4 will cover 59-50 BC — what happens when these ambitions collide and the Republic's institutions can no longer contain them.