1.1 What was the Roman Republic?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will understand how Rome transitioned from monarchy to republic, the role of founding myths in Republican identity, and the theoretical foundations of shared governance embodied in SPQR.

From Troy to Republic: Rome's Legendary Journey

Explore how mythical origins shaped Republican identity and values for centuries

Interactive Timeline: From Troy to Republic

Interactive Family Tree: Divine Ancestry to Roman Founders

Interactive SPQR: Understanding Roman Shared Governance

From Monarchy to Republic: The Political Transition

The Last King: Tarquinius Superbus

According to Roman historians like Livy, the last Roman king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ("the Proud") embodied everything Romans came to despise about monarchy. He ruled without consulting the Senate, used violence to suppress opposition, and accumulated wealth through exploitation.

"He was the first king to break the custom handed down by his predecessors of consulting the Senate on all matters; he governed by his own counsel alone."

— Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 1.49

The Rape of Lucretia: Catalyst for Revolution

The event that triggered the Republic's foundation was deeply personal yet profoundly political. Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son, raped Lucretia, the wife of Tarquinius Collatinus. Her response—and the response of the Roman nobles—reveals fundamental Republican values.

The Mythical Account

Lucretia, a paragon of Roman virtue (pudicitia), is violated by Sextus Tarquinius. She summons her father and husband, confesses what happened, and takes her own life to preserve her family's honour.

Her suicide galvanises the Roman nobility, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, to swear an oath to expel the Tarquins and never again allow monarchical rule.

Historical Analysis

Modern historians debate whether these events occurred as described, but their symbolic importance is clear. The story establishes key Republican principles:

Resistance to tyranny as moral duty
Individual sacrifice for collective good
Male honour tied to female virtue
Rejection of arbitrary personal rule

"It was not the outrage done to the woman, but the disgrace to all that roused them to rebellion."

— Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 1.59

Brutus and the Oath

Lucius Junius Brutus, previously thought a harmless fool, reveals his true nature by pulling the knife from Lucretia's body and swearing the foundational oath of the Republic:

"By this blood—most chaste before the outrage of the prince—I swear, and I call you, gods, to witness, that I will pursue Lucius Tarquinius Superbus and his wicked wife and all his children with sword, with fire, with whatsoever violence I may, and that I will suffer neither them nor any other to be king in Rome!"

— Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 1.59

This oath became the founding charter of Republican libertas—freedom from the domination of any single individual.

Monarchical vs. Republican Values

👑 Monarchical Values

Personal loyalty: Allegiance to the king as individual
Hereditary authority: Power passed through bloodlines
Divine kingship: Royal authority sanctioned by gods
Absolute power: King's will as supreme law
Court culture: Competition for royal favour
Dynastic glory: Achievement measured by royal bloodline
Subject status: Citizens as king's property

🦅 Republican Values

Institutional loyalty: Allegiance to the state itself
Meritocratic advancement: Power earned through service
Collective authority: Power shared among institutions
Limited terms: Temporary, accountable leadership
Competitive honour: Achievement through public service
Civic virtue: Glory through benefiting the community
Citizen rights: Legal protections and political participation

This transformation from monarchical to republican values shaped Roman political culture for centuries. However, the Late Republic would see ambitious individuals attempting to restore monarchical power whilst claiming to defend republican traditions.

Republican Values and Identity

The Theory of Mixed Government

The Roman Republic attempted to balance different forms of government in what Polybius called a "mixed constitution." This system sought to capture the advantages of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy whilst avoiding their respective dangers:

Monarchical element: Consuls provided executive leadership and military command
Aristocratic element: The Senate offered experienced guidance and continuity
Democratic element: Popular assemblies allowed citizen participation in legislation and elections

"The best political system is a blend of all three—monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy."

— Polybius, Histories 6.3

The Reality of Power

Whilst SPQR suggested partnership between Senate and People, the reality was more complex. The patricians (aristocratic families) initially monopolised political power, whilst the plebeians (common citizens) had to fight for political rights through a series of conflicts known as the Struggle of the Orders.

Nevertheless, the theoretical equality embedded in SPQR created a powerful ideal that politicians would invoke throughout Republican history—and which autocrats like Caesar and Augustus would need to respect, at least in form.

"What other nation has shown such gravitas in its councils, such magnanimitas in its dangers, such prudentia in its uncertainties, such celeritas in its actions, such pietas in its religion?"

— Cicero, De Haruspicum Responso 19