Book 22 is the CLIMAX of the Iliad. Everything has been leading to this: Achilles, driven mad with grief and rage, faces Hector, Troy's greatest defender. The entire city watches from the walls. The gods watch from Olympus. And we know—EVERYONE knows—that Hector is going to die.
This isn't a fair fight. Achilles is semi-divine, wears god-forged armour, and is possessed by inhuman fury. Hector is human, isolated, exhausted from battle, and abandoned by the gods. The tragedy isn't that Hector dies—it's HOW he dies. Tricked by Athene. Chased like an animal. Begging for his body to be returned. Denied even that dignity.
So the Trojans, munting like fawns, took refuge in the town, cooled their sweat off and drank to quench their thirst, leaning against the fine battlements. But the Greeks, with their shields tilted back on their shoulders, came up to the wall. As for Hector, his fatal destiny pinned him down remorselessly in front of the Scaean Gate.
— The stage is set, Rieu, lines 1-6
Why This Book Matters
Book 22 isn't just about one hero killing another. It's about the COST of glory, the brutality of revenge, the cruelty of war, and the humanity that persists even in death. Hector dies not as a villain but as a tragic hero—noble, flawed, doomed.
What Makes Book 22 Devastating
Hector stands alone: Every other Trojan has fled inside the walls. Only Hector remains, knowing he must face Achilles
Parents' pleas: Priam and Hecuba BEG Hector to come inside—the most emotionally raw scene of parental desperation in the poem
Hector's internal debate: A rare moment where we see inside a hero's mind as he considers his options
The chase: Three times around Troy's walls—humiliating, not heroic
Divine deception: Athene tricks Hector by disguising herself as his brother
Hector's final plea: He asks only that his body be returned—Achilles refuses
The mutilation: Achilles drags Hector's corpse through the dust behind his chariot
The lament: Andromache's discovery that she is now a widow closes the book
The Tragedy of Hector
Hector isn't a villain. He's the HERO of Troy—fighting to defend his city, his wife, his son. In Book 6, we saw him as a loving husband and father. In Book 22, we see him die. The Iliad doesn't celebrate this death. It grieves it.
Connections to Earlier Books
Book 6: Hector with Andromache and baby Astyanax, foreshadowing today's tragedy
Book 16: Hector killed Patroclus, setting this vengeance in motion
Book 18: Achilles vowed to kill Hector or die trying—now he fulfils that vow
Now: The climactic confrontation that both sides knew was inevitable
Book 22 is structured like a Greek tragedy: inevitable fate, noble suffering, and an ending that destroys lives whilst the audience watches helplessly.
Book 22 Structure
Book 22 follows a tragic arc: the Trojans flee → Hector stands alone → parents plead → Hector debates → Achilles approaches → the chase → the trick → the duel → the death → the mutilation → the lament. Homer deliberately slows down the narrative, building unbearable tension.
SCENE 1
The Trojans Flee
Lines 1-6
All the Trojans except Hector escape inside the city walls. Apollo has abandoned them. Hector's fate pins him outside alone.
SCENE 2
Priam's Plea
Lines 33-76
Priam begs his son to come inside. He describes the horrors Achilles will inflict—on Hector, on Troy, on Priam himself. Desperately emotional.
SCENE 3
Hecuba's Plea
Lines 82-89
Hecuba bares her breast and begs Hector to pity her, to remember she nursed him, to come inside and save himself.
SCENE 4
Hector's Debate
Lines 99-130
Hector considers fleeing, negotiating, or fighting. He decides he must stand and face Achilles—honour demands it.
SCENE 5
Achilles Approaches
Lines 131-144
Achilles advances like Ares himself, bronze armour blazing. Hector's nerve breaks and he runs.
SCENE 6
The Chase
Lines 145-213
Three times around Troy whilst gods and mortals watch. Zeus considers saving Hector but Athene intervenes. The chase continues.
SCENE 7
Athene's Deception
Lines 214-247
Athene disguises herself as Hector's brother Deiphobus, promising support. Hector stops running, believing he has backup.
SCENE 8
The Duel Begins
Lines 248-305
Hector proposes an oath: the victor returns the loser's body. Achilles refuses all negotiation. They fight.
SCENE 9
Hector Falls
Lines 306-366
Achilles strikes Hector in the throat. Hector begs again for his body to be returned. Achilles threatens to eat him raw.
SCENE 10
The Mutilation
Lines 367-404
Achilles strips the body, pierces Hector's ankles, ties him to his chariot, and drags him through the dust towards the Greek ships.
SCENE 11
Troy's Lament
Lines 405-515
Priam collapses. Hecuba wails. Andromache, not yet knowing, is weaving. She hears the cries and runs to the wall—sees her husband's corpse being dragged. She faints.
The Dramatic Pacing
Notice how Homer DELAYS the duel. The pleas, the debate, the chase—all build tension whilst making us care MORE about Hector. By the time he dies, we've seen him as a son, a hero, a frightened human being, and finally a corpse. The delay makes the death MORE tragic, not less.
Hector Stands Outside the Gate
Whilst every other Trojan warrior has fled to safety, Hector remains outside the Scaean Gate. Why? Because he's the prince, the defender, Troy's greatest hero. He CAN'T run. But Homer makes clear: this isn't confidence. It's FATE.
As for Hector, his fatal destiny pinned him down remorselessly in front of the Scaean Gate.
— Rieu, lines 5-6
⚠️ "Fatal Destiny Pinned Him Down"
Not courage. Not choice. FATE. Hector is trapped by his own heroic code—he MUST fight because that's what heroes do. The word "pinned" suggests he's helpless, a victim of his own nobility.
Priam's Desperate Plea
Priam, King of Troy, does something shocking: he BEGS. He strips away royal dignity and pleads with his son as a frightened father.
Old Priam was the first to set eyes on him, shining like the star that comes at summer's end, its clear rays blazing amongst the countless stars in the murk of night, the star they give the name of Orion's Dog. It is the brightest star, but it is a baleful sign and brings much fever to wretched humankind.
— Achilles approaches, Rieu, lines 25-30
💡 The Simile of the Dog Star
Achilles is compared to Sirius, the Dog Star—brightest but BALEFUL (evil, ominous). It brings fever and death. This isn't heroic glory; it's pestilence. Achilles has become something inhuman, a force of destruction.
Then Priam speaks, and it's HEARTBREAKING:
'Hector, dear child, do not stay there by yourself and face this man, or you will quickly meet your doom at the hands of Achilles, since he is much stronger than you—the brute. I wish the gods loved him no more than I do. Then dogs and vultures would soon be feeding on his corpse, and a crushing weight would be lifted from my heart.'
— Priam to Hector, Rieu, lines 38-42
Priam's Argument
"dear child" = strips away formality, father to son
"do not stay there by yourself" = you're ALONE, vulnerable
"much stronger than you" = brutally honest assessment
"the brute" = Priam's hatred of Achilles is visceral
"dogs and vultures would feed on his corpse" = wishes Achilles' death
Priam then describes what Achilles has already done—killed so many of Priam's sons. He describes his own future if Hector dies:
'Think of your wretched father, doomed to a miserable old age, whom in his last years the Father of gods and men will destroy by a fearful doom, after he has seen many evils—his sons killed, his daughters dragged away, his bedrooms ransacked, his babies dashed to the ground in the horror of war, his sons' wives carried off by the murderous hands of Greeks. And I shall be the last—at my own front door the ravening dogs will tear me limb from limb, when someone has robbed me of life with a thrust or throw of the sharp bronze.'
— Priam's vision of his own death, Rieu, lines 60-68
This is PROPHECY—Priam is describing Troy's fall. Babies dashed on the ground. Women dragged away. And himself, an old king, torn apart by dogs at his own front door. It's unbearably specific.
⚠️ The Horror of War on the Old
Priam's plea emphasises something brutal: war is glorious for young heroes but DEGRADING for the old. A young man's corpse is "fine to look upon"—but an old man's mutilated body is grotesque. This isn't about heroism. It's about the ugliness of violence.
So the old man spoke, and with his hands he tore out his white hair. But he did not move Hector's spirit.
— Rieu, lines 77-78
Priam tears his own hair—a gesture of grief and desperation. But it doesn't work. Hector won't move.
Hecuba's Plea
Then Hecuba, Hector's mother, makes her own appeal. She does something SHOCKING by Greek standards:
His mother in her turn wailed aloud in tears and, loosening the fold of her dress, held out a breast with her other hand and, weeping, spoke to him in winged words: 'Hector, my child, have some respect for this and pity me, if ever I gave you this breast to soothe your troubles. Remember that, dear child, and fight off this terrible man from inside the wall. Do not go out and stand against him.'
— Hecuba to Hector, Rieu, lines 82-87
💡 The Exposed Breast
Hecuba bares her breast—the breast that nursed Hector as a baby. It's a gesture of ultimate maternal pleading: "I gave you LIFE. Don't throw it away." In a society where women's bodies are usually covered, this is shocking, intimate, desperate.
So these two, shedding tears, appealed to their dear son with many prayers. But they did not move Hector's spirit, and he waited for the huge Achilles as he approached.
— Rieu, lines 90-92
Both parents BEG. Both fail. Hector "waited"—not with confidence, but with grim determination. He's chosen his fate.
Hector's Internal Debate
Now Homer does something rare: he takes us INSIDE Hector's mind. We see him debating with himself, considering his options. This is one of the few extended internal monologues in the entire Iliad.
But great Hector of the glittering helmet waited there, and deeply troubled spoke to his own great heart: 'If I go inside the gates and the wall, Polydamas will be the first to heap reproach on me—he told me to lead the Trojans back to the town during this accursed night when godlike Achilles rose. But I did not listen. How much better it would have been if I had! But now, having brought disaster on my people through my own recklessness, I am ashamed to face the Trojan men and women with their trailing dresses. I fear some lesser man will say: "Hector, trusting in his own strength, brought ruin on his people."'
— Hector's thoughts, Rieu, lines 99-107
Hector's Dilemma
"deeply troubled" = he's AFRAID, not confident
"Polydamas will reproach me" = he ignored good advice (Book 18)
"I brought disaster on my people" = crushing guilt
"I am ashamed" = TIMĒ (honour/shame) traps him
"some lesser man will say" = reputation matters more than life
Hector then considers an alternative:
'Or should I now put down my bossed shield and my heavy helmet, lean my spear against the wall, and go myself to meet the excellent Achilles? I could promise to give back Helen and all her possessions with her, everything that Paris brought to Troy in his hollow ships—that was the beginning of the quarrel—and to give these things to the sons of Atreus to take away, and to divide everything else amongst the Greeks, all the wealth that the city contains. Then I could take an oath for the Trojans in council not to hide anything, but to divide everything into two equal shares, all that the lovely citadel encloses within its walls.'
Give back Helen. Return all the stolen treasure. Divide Troy's wealth in half. These are GENEROUS peace terms—everything the Greeks supposedly wanted. But Hector immediately realises it won't work.
'But why does my heart debate these things? I must not go as a suppliant to him. He will show no mercy or respect for me, but will simply kill me, naked as I am, once I have put off my armour, as though I were a woman. This is no time now for talking to him from rock or tree, like a girl and a boy, a girl and boy talking love-talk together. It is better to come to grips as soon as possible. Let us see to whom the Olympian will grant glory.'
— Hector decides, Rieu, lines 122-130
The Tragic Choice
Hector KNOWS negotiation won't work—Achilles is beyond reason, consumed by rage. The beautiful image of "a girl and boy talking love-talk" emphasises what's IMPOSSIBLE here: civilised conversation. This is pure violence. So Hector chooses to fight, not because he thinks he'll win, but because his honour demands it. He's trapped by his own heroic code.
Hector's Nerve Breaks
Hector has made his decision: he'll fight. He'll face Achilles with courage and honour. But then Achilles APPEARS, and all Hector's resolve collapses.
So he pondered as he waited; but Achilles came near him, looking like the warrior Ares, brandishing over his right shoulder the terrible Pelian spear, and all around him his bronze armour shone like a blazing fire or the rising sun. Hector was gripped by trembling as he saw him.
— Rieu, lines 131-136
⚠️ Hector Trembles
"Gripped by trembling"—not metaphorical fear, PHYSICAL terror. Achilles looks like Ares (the god of war) and blazes like fire or the sun. He's not human anymore. He's death incarnate. And Hector—brave, noble Hector—is TERRIFIED.
He could no longer bring himself to stand there, but left the gates behind him and fled in fear. The son of Peleus swooped on him, confident in his speed of foot. As a mountain hawk, the fastest thing that flies, swoops easily on a timid dove—the dove flees in front, but the hawk, screeching, rushes close behind in pursuit, his heart driving him to take her—so Achilles in fury flew straight at Hector, and Hector fled in terror.
— The chase begins, Rieu, lines 136-143
💡 The Hawk and Dove Simile
Achilles is the hawk—predator, screeching, confident. Hector is the dove—prey, "timid," fleeing. This simile DESTROYS any sense of heroic combat. This isn't a duel between equals. It's a hunt. Hector is running for his life.
Three Times Around Troy
The chase is PUBLIC. The entire city watches from the walls. The gods watch from Olympus. Hector runs THREE TIMES around the city walls—a complete circuit, again and again.
They ran past the lookout point and the wind-blown fig-tree, away from the wall along the wagon-road, and reached the two fair-flowing springs, where the two sources of swirling Scamander rise. One flows with warm water, and steam rises from it as if from a burning fire; but the other, even in summer, flows cold as hail or freezing snow or water that has turned to ice.
— The route, Rieu, lines 145-152
Homer gives us GEOGRAPHY—specific landmarks, the two springs (one hot, one cold). This isn't generic; it's REAL. We can see exactly where they're running. It makes it more immediate, more painful.
Near these springs are the broad washing-troughs of stone, where the Trojan wives and their lovely daughters used to wash their bright clothes, in the old days of peace, before the sons of the Greeks came.
— Rieu, lines 153-156
⚠️ "In the Old Days of Peace"
Homer suddenly shifts to peacetime—women washing clothes, domestic life, safety. Then snaps back: "before the sons of the Greeks came." War has destroyed even the simplicity of doing laundry. The washing-troughs are a symbol of everything lost.
Past these they ran in flight and pursuit, a good man in front but a far better man in hot pursuit behind him. They were running hard; this was no contest for a sacrificial beast or ox-hide shield—the usual prizes in a race. They were running for the life of Hector, tamer of horses.
— Rieu, lines 157-161
"A good man in front but a far better man behind"—Hector is GOOD, but Achilles is BETTER. This isn't an equal contest. And the prize isn't glory—it's Hector's LIFE.
The Gods Watch
Meanwhile, on Olympus, the gods observe. Zeus considers intervening:
Three times they swept round the city of Priam at running pace. All the gods were looking on. And the Father of gods and men was the first to speak: 'This is terrible—I can see a man I love being chased round the wall. My heart sorrows for Hector, who has burnt so many thighs of oxen for me on the peaks of Ida with its many folds, and at other times on the city heights. And now godlike Achilles is chasing him in swift pursuit round Priam's city. Come, you gods, think and take counsel, whether we should save him from death, or kill him now, good man though he is, at the hands of Peleus' son Achilles.'
— Zeus considers saving Hector, Rieu, lines 165-175
Zeus's Conflict
"This is terrible" = even Zeus is distressed
"a man I love" = Zeus favours Hector
"My heart sorrows" = genuine divine pity
"good man though he is" = acknowledging Hector's worth
BUT: Zeus is considering letting him die anyway
Then Athene intervenes decisively:
Bright-eyed Athene answered him: 'Father of the bright lightning and the dark cloud, what are you saying? Are you proposing to save from wretched death a man who is mortal, whose fate has long been sealed? Do as you please. But the rest of us gods will not all approve.'
— Athene to Zeus, Rieu, lines 178-181
Fate is Sealed
"Whose fate has long been sealed"—Hector was ALWAYS going to die here. Zeus might WANT to save him, but he can't override fate. Even the gods are bound by destiny. This is Greek tragedy at its purest: everyone knows what will happen, but no one can stop it.
Zeus weighs Hector's fate literally—using his golden scales:
Then the Father held out his golden scales and placed in them two portions of death that brings long sorrow, one for Achilles, one for Hector, tamer of horses. He held them by the middle and raised them, and Hector's death-day sank down towards the house of Hades. At once Phoebus Apollo left him.
— Hector's fate sealed, Rieu, lines 209-213
Hector's side sinks—his fate is death. And immediately, Apollo (who has protected Hector throughout the poem) ABANDONS him. Hector is now completely alone.
Athene's Cruel Trick
With Apollo gone, Athene now actively helps Achilles. She doesn't just favour him—she DECEIVES Hector in the cruellest possible way.
But bright-eyed Athene came to the son of Peleus and, standing near him, spoke in winged words: 'Glorious Achilles, dear to Zeus, I am confident now that we two shall win great glory for the Greeks at the ships by killing Hector, insatiable fighter though he is. Now there is no way he can escape us, not even if Apollo, who strikes from afar, suffers agonies and grovels before Father Zeus who holds the aegis. But you now stop and catch your breath, whilst I go and persuade the man to stand and face you.'
— Athene to Achilles, Rieu, lines 214-221
Athene is CONFIDENT. She's going to "persuade" Hector—but not honestly. She's going to TRICK him.
So spoke Athene, and Achilles obeyed gladly and stood still, leaning on his bronze-pointed spear. She left him and came to glorious Hector. She had made herself look and sound like Deiphobus. Standing near him she spoke in winged words: 'Dear brother, swift Achilles is giving you a hard time, chasing you in swift pursuit round Priam's city. Come, let us two stand together and beat him off.'
— Athene disguised as Deiphobus, Rieu, lines 226-232
⚠️ The False Brother
Athene disguises herself as Deiphobus, Hector's beloved brother. She promises to fight BESIDE him—"let us two stand together." This gives Hector courage. He thinks he's not alone. But it's a LIE. Deiphobus isn't there. When Hector needs him, he'll discover the truth.
Great Hector of the glittering helmet answered her: 'Deiphobus, you have always been by far the dearest to me of all my brothers, the sons of Priam and Hecuba. But now I am minded to honour you even more in my heart, since you have dared to come outside the wall for my sake when you saw me, whilst the others stayed inside.'
— Hector's gratitude, Rieu, lines 233-237
Hector is GRATEFUL. "You have always been the dearest to me." He thinks his favourite brother has risked everything to help him. This makes the deception even more cruel.
💡 Divine Deception
The gods in the Iliad often intervene—sometimes fairly, sometimes not. But THIS is particularly nasty. Athene doesn't just help Achilles; she actively TRICKS Hector into stopping his flight by impersonating someone he loves and trusts. It's not a fair fight—it's divine manipulation.
Hector Stops Running
Believing he has support, Hector stops fleeing and turns to face Achilles. He proposes one final agreement:
Then great Hector of the glittering helmet said to him: 'Son of Peleus, I will no longer run from you, as before I ran three times round the great city of Priam and could not bring myself to wait for your attack. But now my heart tells me to stand and face you, whether I kill or am killed. But come, let us swear by the gods, for they are the best witnesses and guardians of agreements. I will not disgrace your corpse, if Zeus grants me endurance and I take your life. When I have stripped off your famous armour, Achilles, I will give your body back to the Greeks. Will you do the same?'
— Hector proposes an oath, Rieu, lines 248-257
Hector's Proposed Oath
"I will no longer run" = regains his courage (false courage, based on Athene's lie)
"whether I kill or am killed" = accepts either outcome
"swear by the gods" = appeals to civilised warfare
"I will not disgrace your corpse" = promises decent treatment
"Will you do the same?" = asks for reciprocal respect
Hector wants ONE THING: the winner returns the loser's body for proper burial. This is basic human decency, the minimum respect even in war.
Achilles' response is SAVAGE:
Swift-footed Achilles looked at him from under his brows and answered: 'Hector, you utter madman, talk to me of no agreements. As there are no trustworthy oaths between lions and men, nor do wolves and lambs have hearts that think alike, but they think unremittingly evil against each other, so it is impossible for you and me to be friends, nor shall there be oaths between us, till one or the other has fallen and glutted Ares with his blood, the god who fights with the shield of bull's hide. Now summon up all your courage. You must now be a spearman and a bold warrior. There will be no more escape for you, but Athene will very soon bring you down by my spear. Now you will pay back in full for all the suffering of my companions, whom you killed when you raged with your spear.'
— Achilles refuses, Rieu, lines 260-272
⚠️ "No Trustworthy Oaths Between Lions and Men"
Achilles compares himself to a LION and Hector to a MAN—or wolves and lambs. They're different species. Oaths are impossible. This isn't heroic combat between equals. Achilles sees Hector as PREY. He's not interested in honour or agreements. Only DEATH.
The negotiation is over before it began. There will be no mercy. No dignity. Just killing.
The Fighting Begins
With oaths refused, the duel begins. But it's not evenly matched—Achilles has divine armour, divine support, and superhuman skill. Hector has courage and a lie.
So speaking, he balanced and threw his long-shadowed spear. But glorious Hector saw it coming and avoided it. He was watching and crouched down, and the bronze spear flew over him and stuck in the ground. Athene snatched it out and gave it back to Achilles, without Hector, shepherd of the people, seeing.
— Achilles' first throw, Rieu, lines 273-277
💡 Athene's Intervention
Achilles MISSES—his spear goes over Hector's head. But Athene retrieves it and gives it back "without Hector seeing." This is DIVINE CHEATING. Hector doesn't know Achilles has his spear again. The fight is rigged from the start.
Now it's Hector's turn:
Then Hector spoke to the excellent son of Peleus: 'You have missed, godlike Achilles. So it seems you did not learn from Zeus what my fate would be, though you claimed you did. You are a clever man with words, a trickster, hoping I might forget my fighting spirit and run in fear from you because of what you say. But you will not stick your spear in my back as I run away. Drive it through my chest as I charge at you—if the god grants you that. But now dodge my bronze spear. I wish you would take it all into your body. The war would be lighter for the Trojans if you were dead, since you are their greatest curse.'
— Hector's defiance, Rieu, lines 279-288
Hector's Last Words of Defiance
"You have missed" = brief moment of confidence
"clever man with words, a trickster" = recognises Achilles' psychological warfare
"stick your spear in my back" = I won't run now
"Drive it through my chest as I charge" = face death head-on
"you are their greatest curse" = acknowledges Achilles' power
So speaking, he balanced and threw his long-shadowed spear, and hit the middle of the son of Peleus' shield. He did not miss. But the spear rebounded far from the shield. Hector was angry that his swift missile had flown from his hand in vain, and stood downcast; he had no other spear. He called with a great shout to Deiphobus of the white shield to bring him a long spear. But Deiphobus was nowhere near him.
— Hector discovers the truth, Rieu, lines 289-296
⚠️ "Deiphobus Was Nowhere Near Him"
THIS is the moment Hector realises he's been tricked. He calls for his brother—the brother he thought was fighting beside him—and discovers he's ALONE. Deiphobus was never there. It was Athene. Hector has been deceived by a god, and now he has no weapons left.
Then Hector knew the truth in his heart and spoke: 'Oh no. So the gods have indeed summoned me to my death. I thought the warrior Deiphobus was beside me, but he is inside the wall—Athene has tricked me. Now evil death is very near me; there is no escape. Long ago this must have been the pleasure of Zeus and his son who strikes from afar, who before this protected me willingly. But now fate has overtaken me. Yet let me not die without a fight, ingloriously, but having done some great deed for future generations to hear of.'
— Hector accepts his fate, Rieu, lines 297-305
Hector's Final Decision
"Let me not die without a fight, ingloriously, but having done some great deed for future generations to hear of." Even facing certain death, betrayed by the gods, weaponless, Hector chooses to die FIGHTING. Not for glory now—that's lost—but for the memory of courage. He wants to die as a hero, even if he can't win.
Hector's Last Stand
With no spear, Hector draws his sword and charges:
So speaking, he drew the sharp sword that hung at his side, a great strong blade, gathered himself, and swooped, like a high-flying eagle that drops to the plain through the dark clouds to seize a tender lamb or a cowering hare—so Hector swooped, brandishing his sharp sword.
— Rieu, lines 306-310
The eagle simile is IRONIC—earlier, Achilles was the hawk hunting the dove. Now Hector is the eagle. But it's false courage. The gods have abandoned him.
Achilles rushed at him in fury, his heart filled with savage passion. He held his shield, beautifully decorated, in front of his chest, and shook his glittering helmet with its four plates. Around it waved the beautiful golden plumes that Hephaestus had set thickly round the crest. As a star moves amongst other stars in the darkness of night, the Evening Star, the most beautiful star set in the sky, so shone the light from the sharp spearpoint which Achilles brandished in his right hand, planning evil for glorious Hector, looking to see where his flesh might best give way.
— Achilles attacks, Rieu, lines 311-320
💡 The Evening Star
Achilles is compared to the Evening Star—beautiful, bright, but also OMINOUS. The Evening Star signals darkness approaching. And Achilles is "planning evil"—this isn't noble combat. He's calculating where to strike for maximum suffering.
All the rest of his body was protected by the beautiful bronze armour he had taken when he killed the mighty Patroclus, but an opening showed where the collar-bones separate the neck from the shoulders, at the throat, where death comes quickest to a man's life. There godlike Achilles drove at him with his spear as he came on in fury, and the point went right through the soft neck.
— The fatal blow, Rieu, lines 321-327
⚠️ Hector Wears Achilles' Armour
Hector is wearing the armour he stripped from Patroclus—which was originally ACHILLES' armour. So Achilles knows exactly where the weak spot is. He's killed men in this armour before. He knows how to defeat it. The irony is brutal: Hector's protection becomes his doom.
Homer is careful: the spear goes through the SOFT NECK, not the windpipe. Hector can still speak. This is important—he needs to plead one more time.
But the heavy bronze spear did not cut his windpipe, so that he could still exchange some words in answer. He fell in the dust, and godlike Achilles exulted over him.
— Rieu, lines 328-330
Hector's Dying Plea
Dying, bleeding in the dust, Hector makes one final request:
'Hector, when you were stripping Patroclus, no doubt you thought you would be safe. You took no thought of me, since I was far away. What a fool you were! Far away by the hollow ships a far greater avenger was left behind—I, who have now loosened your limbs. The dogs and birds will tear you shamefully, whilst the Greeks give Patroclus his funeral.'
— Achilles gloats, Rieu, lines 331-336
Achilles GLOATS. He's not satisfied with victory—he wants Hector to suffer emotionally as well as physically. The threat is mutilation: dogs and birds will tear the corpse.
Then Hector of the glittering helmet said to him, his strength ebbing: 'I beg you by your life and knees and parents, do not let the dogs eat me by the Greek ships. Take the bronze and gold in abundance, the gifts which my father and honoured mother will give you, and send my body home, so that the Trojans and the Trojans' wives may give me my due portion of fire when I am dead.'
— Hector's final plea, Rieu, lines 338-343
Hector Begs
"by your life and knees and parents" = the formal language of supplication
"do not let the dogs eat me" = begging for basic human dignity
"my father and honoured mother will give you" = offers ransom
"send my body home" = all he wants is proper burial
"my due portion of fire" = funeral rites, not glory
This is HEARTBREAKING. Hector isn't asking for his life—he knows he's dying. He's asking for his CORPSE to be treated decently. It's the absolute minimum.
Achilles' response is INHUMAN:
Swift-footed Achilles looked at him from under his brows and answered: 'Do not, you dog, plead with me by knees or parents. I wish my fury and fighting spirit would drive me to carve up your flesh and eat it raw, for what you have done to me. There is no one who will keep the dogs from your head, not even if they bring and weigh out here ten or twenty times your ransom, and promise more besides, not even if Priam, son of Dardanus, offers to pay your weight in gold—not even so will your honoured mother lay you on a bier and mourn the son she bore, but the dogs and birds will devour you utterly.'
— Achilles refuses, Rieu, lines 345-354
⚠️ "Eat Your Flesh Raw"
Achilles wishes he could CANNIBALISE Hector—eat him raw like an animal. This isn't heroic rage. It's dehumanising fury. Achilles has become something monstrous. He refuses ANY ransom, ANY mercy. Hector's mother will never even see the body for burial.
Hector's Last Words
Dying, Hector speaks one final prophecy:
Then, as he died, Hector of the glittering helmet spoke to him: 'I know you well and can predict your future. I was never going to persuade you, since the heart in your breast is made of iron. But take care now that I do not become the cause of the gods' anger against you on the day when Paris and Phoebus Apollo destroy you, great warrior though you are, at the Scaean Gate.'
— Hector's dying prophecy, Rieu, lines 356-360
Hector Prophesies Achilles' Death
"Paris and Phoebus Apollo will destroy you at the Scaean Gate"—the same gate where Hector now lies dying. Hector knows Achilles is doomed too. The killer will be killed. But this isn't comfort—it's just more tragedy. Everyone dies. War consumes everything.
As he spoke, the end of death enfolded him. His spirit flew from his limbs and went down to the house of Hades, lamenting its fate, leaving manhood and youth behind.
— Hector dies, Rieu, lines 361-363
"Leaving manhood and youth behind"—Hector dies in his prime, with everything to live for. His death is WASTE.
Achilles Speaks to the Corpse
Even after Hector is dead, Achilles isn't finished. He speaks to the corpse:
But godlike Achilles spoke to him even when he was dead: 'Die. As for my own death, I will accept it whenever Zeus and the other immortal gods wish to bring it about.'
— Achilles to Hector's corpse, Rieu, lines 365-366
Achilles acknowledges his own doom—he knows he'll die soon—but he doesn't care. Revenge matters more than life.
The Mutilation
What happens next is one of the most disturbing scenes in the Iliad:
So speaking, he drew his bronze spear out of the corpse and laid it aside. Then he stripped the blood-stained armour from Hector's shoulders, whilst the other sons of the Greeks came running up. They gazed in wonder at Hector's size and marvellous looks. And not one of them stood beside him without wounding him.
— Greeks mutilate the body, Rieu, lines 367-371
⚠️ "Not One Stood Beside Him Without Wounding Him"
The Greeks stab Hector's corpse—over and over, each warrior adding his own wound. This is desecration. They admire his beauty ("marvellous looks") even as they defile it. It's grotesque.
And this is what they would say as they looked at one another: 'Well now, Hector is certainly softer to handle than when he set fire to the ships with blazing fire!'
— Greeks mock the corpse, Rieu, lines 373-375
They MOCK him. "Softer to handle"—a grim joke about the dead body being easier to hurt than the living warrior. This is war at its ugliest.
Then Achilles does something even worse:
When swift-footed godlike Achilles had finished stripping him, he stood up amongst the Greeks and spoke in winged words: 'Friends, leaders and rulers of the Greeks, since the gods have granted us to kill this man, who did more harm than all the rest put together, come, let us make an armed reconnaissance round the city to find out what the Trojans plan—whether they will abandon their high citadel now that this man has fallen, or are determined to stay, even though Hector is no more.'
— Achilles addresses the Greeks, Rieu, lines 378-385
Achilles wants to test whether Troy will surrender now. But then he remembers Patroclus:
'But why does my heart debate these things? Patroclus lies by the ships, unwept and unburied. I will not forget him, as long as I remain amongst the living and my knees have their strength. Even if in the house of Hades men forget their dead, yet even there I will remember my dear companion.'
This is touching—Achilles' devotion to Patroclus transcends even death. But it's also OBSESSIVE. His love for Patroclus has curdled into something destructive. What follows proves it.
Dragging the Corpse
So speaking, he thought up an outrage for glorious Hector. He pierced the tendons of both his feet from heel to ankle, threaded ox-hide thongs through them, and tied them to his chariot, letting the head drag. Then he got up into the chariot, lifted the famous armour into it, and lashed the horses to run. And they flew on eagerly. A cloud of dust rose from Hector as he was dragged, his dark hair streamed out behind, and his head, once so handsome, lay wholly in the dust, since Zeus had now given him over to his enemies to be defiled in his own native land.
— The dragging, Rieu, lines 395-404
⚠️ The Ultimate Dishonour
Achilles pierces Hector's ankles, ties him to his chariot, and DRAGS him through the dust. This is the worst possible desecration in Greek culture—denying someone burial, mutilating their body, treating them like an animal carcass. "His head, once so handsome, lay wholly in the dust"—everything beautiful about Hector is destroyed.
"Zeus Had Given Him Over"
Notice Homer's phrasing: Zeus has "given him over to be defiled." The gods allow this desecration. They don't stop it. Hector, who was pious, who sacrificed properly, who honoured the gods—is abandoned to humiliation. Divine favour means nothing in the face of fate.
Troy Watches
The entire scene has been PUBLIC. Troy's people watched from the walls. Now they react:
So his head was wholly befouled with dust. And his mother tore her hair and flung her bright veil far away from her, and raised a great cry of lament as she looked at her son. His dear father wailed piteously, and round them the people were gripped by wailing and lamentation throughout the city. It was most like what would have happened if the whole of beetling Troy had been burning with fire from its heights.
— Troy's grief, Rieu, lines 405-411
The grief is TOTAL. The simile of burning Troy is prophetic—the city itself seems to be dying with Hector.
The people could hardly hold back the old man in his anguish from rushing out of the Dardanian Gate. He rolled in the dung, imploring them all and calling on each man by name: 'Hold back, my friends, and, though you love me, let me go out alone from the city and go to the Greek ships. Let me make my plea to this accursed criminal man. Perhaps he will respect my years and pity my old age.'
— Priam wants to go to Achilles, Rieu, lines 414-420
💡 Priam Foreshadows Book 24
Priam wants to go to Achilles NOW to beg for Hector's body. The people hold him back—it's too dangerous, Achilles would kill him. But this moment FORESHADOWS Book 24, where Priam WILL go to Achilles' tent, and the two enemies will weep together. Homer is planting the seed.
So the old man spoke, lamenting, and the citizens mourned with him. Then Hecuba led the Trojan women in a shrill lament: 'My child, how wretched I am. How shall I live in my suffering, now you are dead? You were my pride night and day throughout the city, and a blessing to all the Trojan men and women in the town, who greeted you as a god. For you were indeed their great glory whilst you lived. But now death and fate have overtaken you.'
— Hecuba's lament, Rieu, lines 430-436
"You were my pride...a blessing to all...their great glory." Hecuba articulates what Hector meant to Troy: everything. Protector, hero, hope. Now he's gone.
Andromache Discovers the Truth
The book's final scene is DEVASTATING. Andromache doesn't yet know Hector is dead. She's at home, doing domestic tasks:
But Hector's wife had heard nothing of this. No reliable messenger had come to tell her that her husband had stayed outside the gates. She was weaving a web in an inner room of her lofty house, a purple double cloak, and embroidering flowers into it. She had told her lovely-haired maids through the house to set a great cauldron on the fire so that there would be a hot bath for Hector when he came home from battle—poor innocent, she did not know that, far from baths, bright-eyed Athene had brought him down by the hands of Achilles.
— Andromache unaware, Rieu, lines 437-446
⚠️ The Bath That Will Never Happen
Andromache is preparing a hot bath for her husband—a gesture of domestic love and care. She's weaving, embroidering flowers, doing the work of peacetime. "Poor innocent"—Homer's narrator breaks in with pity. She doesn't know. The bath will never be used. The contrast between her peaceful domesticity and Hector's corpse being dragged through dust is UNBEARABLE.
Then she heard the wailing and lamentation from the tower. Her limbs shook, and the shuttle fell from her hand to the ground. She spoke again to her lovely-haired maids: 'Come, two of you follow me so I can see what has happened. That was the voice of my honoured mother-in-law I heard. My heart leaps up into my mouth, my limbs are paralysed beneath me. Some evil is surely near for Priam's children.'
— Andromache hears the cries, Rieu, lines 448-454
She hears the wailing. The shuttle falls from her hands—domestic life interrupted by war's horror. She KNOWS something terrible has happened but doesn't yet know what.
So speaking, she rushed through the house like a madwoman, her heart pounding, and her maids went with her. When she reached the tower and the crowd of men, she stood on the wall and looked out, and saw him being dragged before the city. The swift horses were dragging him remorselessly towards the hollow ships of the Greeks. Black night enfolded her eyes, and she fell backwards and gasped out her life. She flung far from her head the bright headbands, the frontlet and woven band, and the veil which golden Aphrodite had given her on the day when Hector of the glittering helmet led her from the house of Eetion, having given countless bride-gifts.
— Andromache faints, Rieu, lines 460-472
Andromache's Collapse
"like a madwoman, her heart pounding" = terror and dread
"saw him being dragged" = witnesses her husband's desecration
"Black night enfolded her eyes" = faints from shock
"gasped out her life" = nearly dies from grief
"flung far from her head the bright headbands" = tears off her wedding symbols
"Aphrodite had given her" = reminder of happier times
She tears off her wedding veil—the one Aphrodite gave her on her wedding day. Her marriage is over. Her life is over.
Andromache's Lament
When she recovers consciousness, Andromache speaks the book's final lament:
'Hector, how wretched I am! So we were both born to the same fate, you in Troy in the house of Priam, I in Thebe under wooded Plakos, in the house of Eetion, who brought me up when I was small—an ill-fated father to an ill-fated child. I wish he had never begotten me. Now you are going to the house of Hades beneath the secret places of the earth, and you leave me in hateful grief, a widow in your house.'
— Andromache's lament begins, Rieu, lines 477-484
"An ill-fated father to an ill-fated child"—Andromache's father was killed by Achilles (Book 6). Now her husband is killed by Achilles. EVERYTHING she loves has been destroyed by the same man.
'And the child is still only a baby, whom you and I, ill-fated parents, brought into the world. You will bring him no profit, Hector, now you are dead, nor will he bring you any. Even if he escapes from the tearful war with the Greeks, labour and sorrow will always be his hereafter. Others will rob him of his lands. The day that makes a child an orphan cuts him off completely from his friends. He walks with his head bowed, his cheeks wet with tears. In his need the child goes to his father's companions, tugging one by the cloak, another by the tunic. One of them takes pity and holds out a cup for a moment. He wets his lips but does not wet his palate. Then a child with both parents alive drives him from the feast with blows, taunting him with insults: "Get out! Your father does not feast with us!" Then in tears the child comes back to his widowed mother.'
— Astyanax's future, Rieu, lines 484-497
⚠️ The Orphan's Fate
This is one of the most heartbreaking passages in all of Homer. Andromache describes her son's future: orphaned, begging at feasts, BULLIED by other children who have fathers, given a sip from a cup out of pity but denied food, driven away with blows. She imagines every humiliating detail. This is what happens to princes when cities fall.
'And now by the beaked ships, far from your parents, the writhing worms will eat you when the dogs have had their fill of you, as you lie naked. Yet there are clothes lying in your house, fine and lovely, made by women's hands. But I will burn them all in blazing fire. They are no use to you, since you will not lie in them. I will burn them for your honour in the eyes of the Trojan men and women.'
— Final lines, Rieu, lines 508-515
Since Hector won't have a proper burial—since his body is being mutilated—Andromache will burn his clothes as a substitute. It's all she can do. A symbolic funeral for a man whose body she may never see again.
So she spoke, weeping, and the women mourned with her.
— Rieu, line 515
Book 22 ends with WEEPING. Not triumph. Not glory. Just grief.
Key Points for Revision
Hector stands alone: Fate "pins him down"—not courage but doom keeps him outside the gates
Parents' pleas: Priam and Hecuba BEG him to come inside—brutally emotional, graphic descriptions of war's horror
Hector's internal debate: Considers fleeing, negotiating, or fighting—chooses honour over survival
Achilles as inhuman force: Dog Star simile—beautiful but baleful, bringing death like pestilence
The chase: Three times round Troy whilst both mortals and gods watch—humiliating, not heroic
Divine deception: Athene tricks Hector by impersonating his brother Deiphobus
Refused negotiation: Hector proposes an oath; Achilles compares them to lions and men—no mercy possible
The duel: Athene retrieves Achilles' spear; Hector discovers the deception too late; accepts his fate
Dying pleas: Hector begs for his body to be returned; Achilles refuses all mercy, wishes he could eat Hector raw
Prophecy of Achilles' death: Hector's last words predict Achilles will die at the Scaean Gate
Mutilation: Greeks stab the corpse repeatedly; Achilles drags it behind his chariot through the dust
Public grief: Priam and Hecuba watch from the walls; whole city mourns
Andromache's discovery: She's preparing a bath for Hector when she hears the wailing; sees his corpse being dragged; faints
The orphan's future: Andromache predicts Astyanax will be bullied, humiliated, driven from feasts
Symbolic funeral: She'll burn Hector's clothes since she can't bury his body
Essay Ideas from Book 22
Themes to Explore
The cost of glory vs the reality of death
Revenge vs mercy—Achilles' inhumanity
Divine manipulation (Athene's deception)
Fate vs free will (Hector "pinned" by destiny)
Public vs private grief
The orphan and widow—war's collateral damage
Desecration and burial rites
Hector as tragic hero
Character Analysis
Hector: from courage to fear to acceptance
Achilles: from grief to inhuman rage
Priam and Hecuba: parental desperation
Andromache: innocent victim of war
Athene: divine manipulation and favouritism
Compare Book 6 Hector (loving father) to Book 22 (doomed warrior)
Connections to Other Books
Book 6: Hector with Andromache and Astyanax foreshadows this tragedy
Book 16: Hector killed Patroclus—now he pays the price
Book 18: Achilles vowed revenge—now he achieves it but becomes monstrous
Book 24: Priam WILL go to Achilles to ransom the body—reconciliation after horror