Books 16 and 17 are SATURATED with death. Patroclus dies. Sarpedon dies. Euphorbus dies. Dozens of unnamed warriors die. But Homer doesn't just pile up corpses—he makes us THINK about what death means. Why do heroes choose death for glory? What's the difference between mortal and immortal suffering? Is kleos (eternal fame) worth dying young?
The Central Question
If you KNOW you're going to die (and die young), how do you live? The Iliad explores this through three perspectives: heroes who die for glory (Patroclus, Sarpedon), gods who can't die but must watch mortals suffer (Zeus, Achilles' horses), and the living who grieve (Achilles in Book 18).
Key Concepts You'll Explore
Mortality as the human condition: Awareness of death shapes EVERYTHING heroes do
Kleos vs life: The trade-off between long life and eternal fame
Immortal grief: What happens when gods/immortals experience mortal loss
Heroic death vs ordinary death: How warriors make death meaningful
Zeus's perspective: "Nothing is more wretched than man"—the divine view of mortality
Mortality: The Defining Human Trait
In Homeric thought, what makes humans HUMAN is that we die. Gods are athanatoi (deathless). Humans are thnētoi (death-bound). This isn't just a biological fact—it's the FUNDAMENTAL difference between divine and human existence.
Of all creatures that breathe and walk upon the earth, nothing is more wretched than man.
— Zeus, Rieu Book 17
Why Zeus Says This
Humans KNOW they'll die: Unlike animals, we're conscious of mortality
We lose people we love: Death separates us from companions, family, children
We must keep going anyway: No escape, no reprieve—just endurance
Our achievements are temporary: Even great deeds end when we die
Context: Zeus says this watching IMMORTAL horses grieve—even they suffer from contact with mortality
💡 The Paradox
Zeus pities humans for being mortal. But humans don't pity gods for being immortal. Why? Because mortality gives life MEANING. If you live forever, nothing matters. If you die, everything matters. The Iliad explores whether this trade-off is worth it.
Achilles' Choice: The Mortality/Glory Trade-Off
The clearest statement of the mortality theme comes from Achilles in Book 9. His mother Thetis told him his fate: two paths, mutually exclusive.
My mother, the silver-footed goddess Thetis, tells me that I have two ways of coming to my end. If I stay here and fight before the Trojan city, I lose all hope of home but win unfading glory; whereas if I go back to my own land my glory will be lost, but I shall have long life, and shall be spared an early death.
— Achilles, Book 9, Rieu
Option 1: Go Home
Long life
See family, maybe have children
Grow old
No glory—die forgotten
Safety, but obscurity
Option 2: Stay at Troy
Early death
Never see home again
Die young
"Unfading glory"—eternal fame
Remembered forever
Achilles' Decision
By being IN the Iliad, he's already chosen Option 2
He traded length of life for quality of reputation
This makes his honour EVERYTHING—it's what he's dying for
When Agamemnon dishonours him (Book 1), he's not just being rude—he's making Achilles' death MEANINGLESS
In Book 9, Achilles briefly reconsiders—maybe glory isn't worth dying for?
But Patroclus's death (Book 16) forces him back—he WILL die young, killing Hector
📌 The Core Trade-Off
Mortality + Glory vs Longevity + Obscurity. You can't have both. This choice defines heroic culture: die young and famous, or live long and forgotten. Most people choose safety. Heroes choose kleos.
Kleos: Why Heroes Die Young
Kleos (κλέος) means "glory" or "fame"—specifically, what people SAY about you after you're dead. In a world without heaven or pleasant afterlife (Hades is just grey shades drifting), kleos is the ONLY immortality available to mortals.
The Kleos Equation
Kleos = Spectacular Deeds × Early Death × Being Remembered in Song. You need all three. Living long reduces kleos (less dramatic). Dying without achievement gives nothing to remember. Achievement without death lacks the tragic beauty that makes songs compelling.
Patroclus: Winning Kleos Through Death
Patroclus achieves kleos in Book 16 by: (1) saving the Greek ships—major achievement, (2) killing Sarpedon (Zeus's son!)—spectacular deed, (3) dying heroically—tragic death. His name will be remembered in song forever. Mission accomplished.
⚠️ The Dark Side
Patroclus achieves eternal fame. He also dies at age ~25, never sees home again, and causes Achilles unbearable grief. Is this a GOOD trade? Homer doesn't answer—he just shows you the cost.
Sarpedon: Zeus's Son Must Die
Even being Zeus's son doesn't save you from mortality. Sarpedon is half-divine, but his mortal half wins—he dies. Zeus COULD save him but chooses not to, because breaking fate would destabilize the cosmos.
What Sarpedon's Death Proves
Even divine parentage doesn't grant immortality
Zeus values cosmic order over his own son's life
Mortality is absolute—can't be bargained with
Kleos is the compensation—Sarpedon dies gloriously
His body gets proper burial (Zeus ensures this)
When Immortals Experience Mortal Grief
Book 17 gives us something remarkable: IMMORTAL beings experiencing grief over MORTAL death. Achilles' horses and Zeus both suffer loss—showing that mortality's pain spreads even to the deathless.
The horses of Achilles had withdrawn from the fighting and were weeping ever since they saw their charioteer brought down in the dust by man-slaying Hector... They stood as still as a gravestone set over the tomb of a dead man or woman, with their heads bowed to the ground. Hot tears poured from their eyes to the earth as they grieved for their charioteer.
— Rieu, Book 17
📌 The Tragedy of Immortal Grief
These horses are IMMORTAL—gifts from the gods. They shouldn't experience death or loss. But they loved Patroclus, and now they're paralyzed by grief. Zeus pities them: "Why did we give you to a mortal?" Exposure to mortality brings suffering even to the deathless.
Zeus Watching His Son Die
Zeus debates saving Sarpedon from death. Hera tells him: you CAN'T. If you break fate for your son, every god will want to save THEIR favorites. The system collapses. Zeus agrees—and weeps blood as Sarpedon dies.
Divine vs Mortal Grief
Zeus grieves temporarily—Sarpedon dies, Zeus is sad, but Zeus continues forever
Mortal parents grieve permanently—when your child dies, you carry that loss until YOUR death
The horses grieve intensely but Zeus gives them strength—their grief ends
Achilles (Book 18) will grieve with no divine relief—permanent human suffering
Key difference: Immortals experience grief as temporary state; mortals experience it as permanent wound
Why Mortality Makes Humans "Wretched"
Zeus calls humans "the most wretched" of all creatures. Not because we die—animals die too—but because we're CONSCIOUS of death. We know it's coming, we lose people we love, and we keep going anyway.
Animals die but don't know they will—no existential dread
Gods never die—no loss through death, no urgency
Humans die + know it—every choice shadowed by mortality
This creates meaning: BECAUSE we die, life matters
But also suffering: Every attachment ends in loss
Three Deaths Compared: Sarpedon, Patroclus, Euphorbus
Books 16 & 17 give us three major deaths. Comparing them shows different types of heroic death and what each achieves.
Sarpedon (Book 16)
Status: Zeus's son, Lycian king
Death: Killed by Patroclus in fair combat
Meaning: Even divine blood doesn't save you
Kleos: Maximum—died defending Troy
Burial: Zeus ensures proper rites
Patroclus (Book 16)
Status: Achilles' companion, Greek warrior
Death: Apollo + Euphorbus + Hector (3 stages)
Meaning: Success + overconfidence = death
Kleos: Eternal—saved Greek fleet
Burial: Book 23 funeral games
Euphorbus (Book 17)
Status: Young Trojan, first battle
Death: Killed by Menelaus trying to claim Patroclus's body
Meaning: Overreach kills—tried to claim unearned kleos
Kleos: Minimal—remembered only as "the guy who died trying"
Burial: Not mentioned—ordinary death
💡 The Pattern
All three die pursuing glory. Sarpedon and Patroclus achieve it (memorable deaths in worthy causes). Euphorbus fails (died young for nothing). Kleos isn't automatic—you have to EARN it through genuine achievement.
Essay Guidance: Writing About Death & Mortality
Common essay questions on this theme and how to approach them:
Q: "Explore the theme of mortality in Books 16 & 17."
Structure:
Para 1: Achilles' choice (Book 9)—sets up mortality vs glory trade-off
Para 2: Patroclus's death—achieves kleos through dying heroically
Para 3: Sarpedon—even Zeus's son must die, mortality absolute
Para 4: Immortal grief (horses, Zeus)—mortality's pain spreads to deathless
Para 5: "Nothing more wretched than man"—human consciousness of death creates meaning + suffering
Q: "Is the pursuit of kleos presented positively or negatively?"
Argue BOTH:
Positive: Gives meaning to short lives, achieves immortality through memory, drives heroic deeds, honors the dead
Negative: Requires early death, causes grief to survivors, encourages recklessness (Patroclus disobeys orders), makes warriors value reputation over survival
Conclude: Homer presents it ambiguously—shows costs AND benefits, lets readers judge
Q: "How do the gods view human mortality?"
Key points:
Zeus: "nothing more wretched than man"—pities humans for being death-bound
Zeus debates saving Sarpedon—shows gods FEEL loss but accept fate
Horses' grief—immortals exposed to mortality suffer too
Gods intervene in deaths (Apollo kills Patroclus) but don't prevent mortality itself
Divine perspective: mortality makes humans simultaneously pitiable and admirable
Key Takeaways for Revision
Essential Points
Mortality is THE defining human trait—separates mortals from immortals
Kleos (eternal fame) is the only immortality available to mortals
Heroes trade long life for glorious death—Achilles' explicit choice
Even Zeus's son (Sarpedon) cannot escape death
Immortals who experience mortal loss (horses, Zeus) suffer temporary grief
Humans suffer permanently because WE are mortal too
"Nothing more wretched than man"—Zeus's verdict on human condition
Consciousness of death creates both meaning and suffering
Homer presents kleos ambiguously—shows costs (early death, grief) and benefits (eternal memory)
Books 16-17 are saturated with death to make us think about mortality's meaning