Book 16 is THE TURNING POINT of the entire epic. Everything before this moment leads to Patroclus's death; everything after flows from it. Achilles' wrath against Agamemnon (Books 1-9) becomes wrath against Hector (Books 19-22). The war's stakes change. The emotional tone shifts. Book 16 is where consequences become irreversible.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will understand how Patroclus's aristeia (moment of glory) and death function as the Iliad's structural pivot, analyse Homer's use of dramatic irony and foreshadowing, and explain the three-stage death sequence involving Apollo, Euphorbus, and Hector.
Why This Book Matters
Book 16 does several crucial things at once:
Multiple Functions of Book 16
Narrative pivot: Transforms Achilles' character arc from pride to grief
Dramatic irony: We know Patroclus will die; watching him succeed makes it worse
Thematic development: Shows the cost of kleos (glory) and the limits of friendship
Divine intervention: Apollo directly kills a hero, showing gods' power
Emotional climax: Sets up Achilles' grief in Book 18 and rage in Books 20-22
📌 REMEMBER This
Patroclus doesn't die because he's weak or makes a tactical error. He dies because he succeeds TOO WELL—he pushes beyond Achilles' instructions, kills Zeus's son Sarpedon, and attracts Apollo's intervention. Success leads to death. That's the tragedy.
Context: Where Are We in the Story?
By Book 16, the Greeks are DESPERATE. Achilles withdrew in Book 1. The Greeks have fought without him for Books 2-15. In Book 15, Hector reaches the Greek ships and threatens to burn them. If the ships burn, the Greeks are trapped in Troy forever. This is the crisis moment.
Timeline Leading to Book 16
Book 1: Achilles withdraws, asks Zeus to help Trojans
Books 2-8: Greeks fight without Achilles, slowly losing
Book 9: Embassy fails—Achilles refuses to return
Books 11-15: Major Greek heroes wounded, Trojans reach ships
Book 16: Patroclus can't watch anymore—intervenes with fatal consequences
Book 16 Structure
Book 16 has a CLEAR dramatic arc: persuasion → preparation → triumph → overconfidence → death. Homer builds Patroclus up systematically, then tears him down with equal care.
SCENE 1
Patroclus Weeps
Lines 1-100
Patroclus comes to Achilles in tears like "a little girl." He begs Achilles to rejoin battle or let him fight in Achilles's armour.
SCENE 2
Achilles Agrees—With Limits
Lines 80-100
Achilles agrees but gives strict orders: drive them from the ships, then COME BACK. Don't pursue to Troy or Apollo will stop you.
SCENE 3
Patroclus Arms for Battle
Lines 130-154
Extended arming scene. Patroclus puts on Achilles's armour—except the spear, which only Achilles can wield. Achilles prays to Zeus.
SCENE 4
The Myrmidons Attack
Lines 155-283
The Myrmidons surge forward like wasps. Trojans think Achilles has returned. Patroclus kills Pyraechmes and turns the tide.
SCENE 5
Sarpedon's Death
Lines 419-683
Zeus debates saving his son Sarpedon. Hera convinces him to let fate proceed. Patroclus kills Sarpedon. Epic fight over the body.
SCENE 6
Patroclus Overreaches
Lines 684-867
Patroclus, drunk on success, charges Troy's walls three times. Apollo pushes him back on the fourth, strips his armour. Euphorbus wounds him. Hector kills him.
The Dramatic Arc
Notice the RISE and FALL: Patroclus starts weeping and helpless, achieves spectacular success (killing Zeus's son!), then overreaches and dies. Homer gives us a complete heroic trajectory in one book—from compassion to triumph to tragic death.
Patroclus Weeping: The Emotional Breaking Point
Book 16 opens with Patroclus weeping "like a dark spring running down rock." This simile tells us everything: his grief is natural, unstoppable, flowing from a deep source. He's reached his limit.
So they fought on like blazing fire. Meanwhile, Patroclus came up to Achilles, the shepherd of the people, shedding warm tears like a dark spring that runs down a steep cliff spreading its waters over the rock. The swift-footed brilliant Achilles felt pity when he saw him, and spoke to him with winged words: 'Why these tears, Patroclus, like some little girl who runs beside her mother begging to be picked up, and clutches at her dress and holds her back as she tries to hurry, and looks at her with tears till she is picked up? You are like that girl, Patroclus, shedding your soft tears.'
— Rieu, Book 16
Unpacking the Imagery
"warm tears like a dark spring": Natural, abundant grief—not shame or weakness
"runs down a steep cliff": Gravity pulls it—grief is involuntary, overwhelming
"like some little girl": Achilles' comparison—vulnerable, desperate, demanding attention
"clutches at her dress and holds her back": Patroclus is PHYSICALLY preventing Achilles from ignoring him
"looks at her with tears till she is picked up": Emotional manipulation through visible suffering
💡 Consider This
Achilles compares Patroclus to a little girl—potentially insulting, but also INTIMATE. This is how someone speaks to their closest companion. There's affection beneath the teasing. Achilles sees Patroclus's pain and immediately asks what's wrong.
Patroclus's Plea: The Perfect Speech
Patroclus's response is one of the most effective persuasive speeches in the Iliad. He doesn't attack Achilles directly—that would trigger defensiveness. Instead, he describes the crisis, names the wounded heroes, and THEN suggests a compromise.
'Achilles, son of Peleus, by far the greatest of the Greeks, do not be angry with me. Such terrible suffering has come upon the Greeks. All those who used to be our best are lying by the ships, wounded by arrows or spear-thrusts... But your anger is ruthless. How will any man in future generations profit from you, if you do not save the Greeks from disaster? Pitiless man! Surely the horseman Peleus was not your father, nor Thetis your mother, but the grey sea bore you, and the sheer cliffs, your heart is so hard. But if you are avoiding some prophecy, and your honoured mother has told you something from Zeus, at least send me out quickly, and let the rest of the Myrmidons follow me, and I may bring light to the Greeks. Give me your armour to wear on my shoulders; the Trojans may take me for you and hold back from fighting.'
— Rieu, Book 16
The Strategy of This Speech
"do not be angry with me": Defensive opening—knows Achilles might resent this
"All those who used to be our best": Names the crisis without blaming Achilles
"How will any man in future generations profit": Appeals to kleos—Achilles' reputation
"Pitiless man! Surely... the grey sea bore you": NOW attacks—"you're inhuman, heartless"
"if you are avoiding some prophecy": Offers Achilles an excuse for his behavior
"at least send me": The compromise—you don't have to go, but LET ME
"the Trojans may take me for you": The plan—deception through armour
⚠️ Fatal Irony
Patroclus says "I may bring LIGHT to the Greeks." He WILL bring light—the light of funeral pyres after his death prompts Achilles' return. He's prophesying his own function in the narrative without knowing it.
Achilles Agrees—With Conditions
Achilles agrees to let Patroclus wear his armour and lead the Myrmidons. BUT he gives explicit, detailed instructions about limits. This is crucial: Patroclus will later disobey these instructions, and that disobedience will kill him.
'Patroclus, what a thing to say! I am not avoiding any prophecy I have heard of... But I will let you have your way. Put on my famous armour, and lead the Myrmidons into battle... But listen to what I say and take it all to heart, so that you may win me great honour and glory from all the Greeks, and they may give me back the lovely girl, and glorious gifts besides. When you have driven them from the ships, come back. Even if thundering Zeus grants you glory, you must not go on fighting... Do not press on towards Troy without me, or you will make me lose face. And do not let success in fighting go to your head and lead you on to Troy.'
— Rieu, Book 16
📌 The Instructions Patroclus Will Ignore
Achilles gives THREE explicit warnings: (1) "when you have driven them from the ships, COME BACK", (2) "do not press on towards Troy WITHOUT ME", (3) "do not let success go to your head." Patroclus will violate ALL THREE. He drives them from ships—keeps fighting. Presses toward Troy—without Achilles. Lets success go to his head—attacks walls three times.
💡 Why Does Achilles Give These Warnings?
Is it concern for Patroclus's safety? Or concern for his OWN timē (honour)? "Win ME great honour and glory"—Achilles wants the credit. "Do not press on... or you will make ME lose face"—this is about Achilles' reputation, not Patroclus's life. The speech reveals Achilles' priorities, and they're... selfish.
The Arming Scene: Ritual and Symbolism
Arming scenes in the Iliad are FORMULAIC—they follow a set pattern (greaves, breastplate, sword, shield, helmet, spear). But Homer breaks the formula here in a significant way: Patroclus cannot take Achilles' spear.
Then Patroclus armed himself in gleaming bronze. First he fastened the splendid greaves round his shins, fitted with silver ankle-pieces. Next he put the elaborate breastplate round his chest, the breastplate of swift-footed Achilles. Round his shoulders he slung the silver-studded bronze sword, and then the huge strong shield. On his mighty head he set the well-made helmet with its horsehair crest, and the plume nodded terribly from above. He took two strong spears that suited his grip. But he did not take the spear of the great-hearted son of Aeacus, that heavy, long, massive weapon. No other Greek could wield it, only Achilles knew how to wield it, the Pelian ash-spear which Chiron had given to his father Peleus from the peak of Pelion, to be the death of heroes.
— Rieu, Book 16
The Significance of the Spear
"But he did not take the spear": Breaks the arming formula—Homer draws attention to this
"No other Greek could wield it": The spear represents Achilles' unique prowess
"only Achilles knew how to wield it": Patroclus is NOT Achilles, despite the armour
"to be the death of heroes": Foreshadowing—this spear will kill Hector (Book 22)
Symbolic meaning: Patroclus can LOOK like Achilles but can't BE Achilles
⚠️ The Limits of Impersonation
The spear Patroclus CAN'T take is the weapon Achilles WILL use to kill Hector. By leaving it behind, Homer shows us: Patroclus is not Achilles' equal, the disguise is incomplete, and Patroclus's mission is doomed. The absence of the spear predicts the failure of the plan.
Achilles' Prayer to Zeus: Partial Success, Total Failure
Before Patroclus leaves, Achilles prays to Zeus using a special cup (reserved only for prayers to Zeus). He asks for two things: (1) Patroclus drives Trojans from ships, and (2) Patroclus returns safely. Zeus grants one, denies the other.
'Zeus, King, lord of Dodona, far away, god of the wintry Pelasgians, you who dwell far off and rule over stormy Dodona... Hear me now too, and grant me this wish. I myself will stay here by the gathering of the ships, but I am sending my comrade with many Myrmidons to fight. Let glory attend him, Zeus whose voice is thunder, and make his heart brave, so that Hector too may learn whether my comrade knows how to fight alone, or whether his hands rage unbeatable only when I myself enter the toil of war. But when he has driven the fighting and the battle-cry away from the ships, then let him come back to me at the swift ships unharmed, with all his armour and his close-fighting comrades.'
So he prayed, and Zeus the counsellor heard him. One half the Father granted, but not the other. The Father agreed that Patroclus should drive the tumult and the fighting back from the ships, but he did not agree that Patroclus should come back safely from the battle.
— Rieu, Book 16
Zeus's Partial Grant
GRANTED: Patroclus drives battle from ships → SUCCESS
DENIED: Patroclus returns safely → DEATH
"One half the Father granted, but not the other": Zeus's trademark move—partial success breeds tragedy
Why tell us now?: Homer gives away the ending to create DRAMATIC IRONY. We watch Patroclus succeed knowing he's doomed.
📌 Dramatic Irony in Action
From this moment forward, EVERY success Patroclus achieves is tinged with tragedy. When he kills Trojans, we know he's heading toward his own death. When Trojans flee, we know he's about to pursue too far. Success = death. That's the cruel mathematics of Book 16.
The Myrmidons Charge: Like Wasps from a Nest
When Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, Homer compares them to wasps disturbed by children—they pour out in fury, attacking everything. The Trojans, seeing "Achilles" return, panic immediately.
They poured out like wasps from a wayside nest that boys have been teasing, constantly provoking them in their home by the road—the fools, they make trouble for many people. And if some traveller passing by accidentally disturbs them, they all fly out furiously and defend their children. With such spirit and fury the Myrmidons poured out from the ships.
— Rieu, Book 16
💡 The Wasp Simile
Why wasps? They're PROVOKED (boys teasing = Trojans attacking ships), they defend their home FURIOUSLY (Myrmidons protecting ships), and they attack COLLECTIVELY (unified force). The simile also suggests mindless rage—wasps don't think, they just attack. The Myrmidons are a force of nature.
Patroclus's Killing Spree
Homer now gives us a CATALOGUE of Patroclus's kills. The Greeks are "picking off Trojans one by one." This establishes Patroclus as formidable—which makes his death more shocking.
So each of these Greek chieftains killed his man. Just as predatory wolves harry lambs or kids and snatch them away from their mothers when they have become separated on the mountain-tops through the carelessness of the shepherd, and the wolves seize their chance to pick off the timid creatures—so the Greeks harried the Trojans. The Trojans could think only of tumultuous retreat, and all the fight went out of them.
"lambs or kids": Vulnerable, innocent—makes Trojans sympathetic
"separated from their mothers": Cut off from protection (Troy's walls)
"carelessness of the shepherd": Whose fault? Hector's overreach?
"all the fight went out of them": Complete collapse of morale
Sarpedon Steps Forward: Zeus's Son
As Trojans flee, ONE man stands firm: Sarpedon, son of Zeus, king of Lycia, greatest of Troy's allies. He rallies Trojans and challenges "Achilles" (actually Patroclus) directly. This sets up the book's first major duel.
But Sarpedon was cut to the heart when he saw his comrades running with their tunics loose, put to flight by Patroclus son of Menoitios. He called out to the godlike Lycians in rebuke: 'Shame on you, you Lycians! Where are you running? Show some spirit! I will stand up to this man, so I can find out who it is that dominates here, and has done the Trojans so much damage, cutting down many good men.'
— Rieu, Book 16
⚠️ Sarpedon's Challenge
Sarpedon doesn't KNOW he's facing Patroclus. He thinks it's Achilles. This is crucial—Sarpedon is willing to face the greatest warrior alive. His courage is genuine, his death meaningful, and Zeus WILL watch his own son die without intervening.
Zeus's Agony: Can He Save His Son?
As Sarpedon prepares to fight Patroclus, Zeus watches from Olympus. He knows Sarpedon is fated to die. But he's Zeus—can't he just CHANGE fate and save his son? Hera stops him with a devastating argument.
Then Zeus who gathers the clouds said sorrowfully to Hera: 'This is a cruel thing! Fate has it that Sarpedon, who is dearest of men to me, must be brought down by Patroclus son of Menoitios. My heart is torn in two as I ponder whether I should snatch him up while he is still alive out of the tearful battle and set him down in the rich land of Lycia, or whether I should let him be brought down now at the hands of Patroclus.'
Then Hera replied: 'Most dread son of Kronos, what a thing to say! A mortal man, long since doomed by fate, and you want to set him free from harsh death? Do it—but the rest of us gods will not all approve. And I tell you this, take it to heart: if you send Sarpedon home alive, think how soon another of the gods might also want to send his own son away from the fierce fighting. Many sons of immortals are fighting round Priam's great city—you will cause terrible resentment among the immortals. But if he is dear to you and your heart sorrows for him, then let him be brought down in the fierce fighting at the hands of Patroclus, but when the life and spirit have left him, then send Death and sweet Sleep to carry him to the land of broad Lycia, where his brothers and kinsmen will give him burial with mound and pillar, for that is the honour due to the dead.'
— Rieu, Book 16
Hera's Argument Breaks Down
"A mortal man, long since doomed by fate": Even ZEUS can't override fate
"the rest of us gods will not all approve": Political consequences on Olympus
"another god might also want to send his own son away": Precedent matters—everyone has favorites
"you will cause terrible resentment": Saving Sarpedon undermines divine order
"let him be brought down... send Death and sweet Sleep": The compromise—die nobly, honored burial
💡 Zeus's Limitations
Even Zeus, king of gods, cannot save his own son from fate. This is Homer's theology: fate exists ABOVE the gods. Zeus has power over mortals but not over death itself. He can honor Sarpedon's corpse (which he does), but he cannot prevent his death. This makes Sarpedon's death cosmically significant—even gods suffer loss.
Sarpedon's Death: Blood Rain from Heaven
Patroclus and Sarpedon fight. Both cast spears. Patroclus misses Sarpedon but kills his charioteer. Sarpedon's spear misses Patroclus but kills HIS horse. Then Patroclus strikes the fatal blow.
Then Patroclus' spear found the place where the lungs enclose the beating heart. He struck him there, and the spear went through, and Sarpedon fell as an oak falls, or a poplar, or a tall pine which woodcutters have felled on the mountains with their sharp axes to make ship-timber. So he lay stretched out in front of his horses and chariot, bellowing, clutching at the bloody dust. Like a great-hearted bull that a lion has attacked and killed, that dies bellowing under the lion's jaws, so the lord of the Lycian shieldmen raged in his death-struggle under Patroclus.
— Rieu, Book 16
The Tree Simile
"an oak falls, or a poplar, or a tall pine": Sarpedon = great tree, tall and strong
"woodcutters have felled... to make ship-timber": Useful death—his death has purpose
"bellowing, clutching at the bloody dust": Animal imagery—death reduces us to beasts
"great-hearted bull... dies bellowing under the lion's jaws": Patroclus = lion, Sarpedon = bull—predator wins
Then Zeus shed bloody rain upon the earth, in honour of his son, whom Patroclus was about to kill in the rich land of Troy, far from his native land.
— Rieu, Book 16
📌 Blood Rain from Heaven
Zeus CANNOT save Sarpedon, but he CAN honor him. The "bloody rain" is Zeus weeping blood for his son—a cosmic expression of grief. This image is haunting: heaven itself mourns. It foreshadows Zeus's grief and establishes that even gods suffer when mortals die.
The Fight Over Sarpedon's Body
After Sarpedon dies, both sides fight over his corpse and armour. This is a pattern in the Iliad—stripping enemy armour brings kleos, and preventing it protects the dead warrior's honor. Eventually, Zeus sends Apollo to rescue Sarpedon's body.
Body Recovery Pattern
This scene foreshadows the fight over PATROCLUS's body in Book 17. Both Sarpedon and Patroclus are great warriors, both die heroically, both bodies become battlefields. The parallel is deliberate—what happens to Sarpedon's corpse previews what will happen to Patroclus's.
Patroclus Pushes Too Far
After killing Sarpedon, Patroclus is FLYING HIGH. He's unstoppable. The Trojans are fleeing. He's achieved Achilles' goal—save the ships. But instead of returning (as Achilles instructed), he pursues the Trojans all the way to Troy's walls. This is the fatal mistake.
Then Patroclus would have taken the high-gated city of Troy, if Apollo had not stood on the strong wall... Three times Patroclus set foot on the angle of the high wall, and three times Apollo beat him back, pushing against the shining shield with his immortal hands. But when for the fourth time Patroclus came on like a god, then Apollo shouted terribly at him: 'Give way, Patroclus! It is not fated that the city of the proud Trojans should fall to your spear, nor even to Achilles, who is a far better man than you!'
— Rieu, Book 16
⚠️ Three Times Pattern
"Three times Patroclus set foot... three times Apollo beat him back." The pattern of three is HEROIC (Achilles does many things three times). But the FOURTH time, Apollo intervenes directly. Patroclus has crossed the line from heroic persistence to divine defiance. Gods don't tolerate that.
💡 "Like a God"
"When for the fourth time Patroclus came on LIKE A GOD"—this is the problem. Patroclus is fighting AS IF he's divine. He's forgotten his mortality. Apollo's intervention reminds him: you're human, and humans die.
Stage 1 of Death: Apollo Strips His Armour
Patroclus backs off from Troy's walls and returns to battle. But Apollo isn't done. He moves through the battlefield invisibly, finds Patroclus, and strikes him from behind—stripping his armour with a single blow.
But Apollo came up close to Patroclus through the press of fighting, a terrible figure, wrapped in thick mist. He stood behind him and struck his back and broad shoulders with the flat of his hand, and Patroclus' eyes spun. Apollo knocked the helmet from his head... and it went rolling under the horses' feet, with the plume all fouled with blood and dust... The long spear was shattered in his hands, the great strong spear, and the tasselled shield with its arm-strap fell from his shoulders to the ground, and lord Apollo son of Zeus undid his corslet. Then blindness seized his wits, and his shining limbs were loosened under him, and he stood dazed.
— Rieu, Book 16
Apollo's Systematic Destruction
"wrapped in thick mist": Invisible—mortals can't see gods unless gods wish it
"struck his back and broad shoulders": From BEHIND—not honorable, but gods don't need honor
"helmet... rolling under the horses' feet": Sacred armour desecrated—bad omen
"spear was shattered": His weapon destroyed—can't defend himself
"shield... fell from his shoulders": Exposed, vulnerable
"Apollo... undid his corslet": Breastplate removed—chest exposed to spear thrusts
"blindness seized his wits... he stood dazed": Stunned, helpless
📌 The God Strikes First
Patroclus doesn't die because he's weak or makes a mistake in combat. He dies because A GOD attacks him directly. Apollo strips his armor, dazes him, leaves him vulnerable. No mortal can survive divine intervention. This is key for essays: Patroclus's death isn't failure—it's the price of defying fate.
Stage 2 of Death: Euphorbus Wounds Him
With Patroclus stripped, dazed, and defenseless, a minor Trojan warrior named Euphorbus sees his chance. He throws a spear, striking Patroclus between the shoulder blades from behind.
Then a Trojan spearman was first to strike him: Euphorbus son of Panthous, who surpassed all men of his age with the spear and in horsemanship and fleetness of foot... He had already brought down twenty men from their chariots, though this was his first time in battle. He first struck you with his spear, Patroclus, but he did not beat you down. He pulled the ash spear out of the wound and ran back into the crowd, and would not face Patroclus in battle even though he was naked. But Patroclus, overcome by the god's blow and the spear-wound, shrank back into the mass of his comrades, avoiding his fate.
— Rieu, Book 16
Euphorbus: The Coward Who Wounds a Hero
"surpassed all men of his age": He's talented, but young and inexperienced
"first time in battle": His FIRST FIGHT, and he wounds Patroclus—luck, not skill
"struck you with his spear... but did not beat you down": Wounds but doesn't kill—he's not strong enough
"pulled the spear out and ran back": RUNS AWAY after striking—cowardice!
"would not face Patroclus even though he was naked": Even disarmed, Patroclus is too scary to fight directly
💡 The Three-Stage Death Pattern
Homer is building a hierarchy of responsibility: (1) APOLLO weakens Patroclus, (2) EUPHORBUS wounds him, (3) HECTOR will finish him. Each killer is less powerful than the last: god → minor warrior → great hero. Hector gets the "credit" for Patroclus's death, but we know Apollo did the real work.
Stage 3 of Death: Hector Delivers the Final Blow
Patroclus, wounded and retreating, is spotted by Hector. Hector charges, drives his spear through Patroclus's lower belly, and kills him. The two greatest warriors (after Achilles) finally face each other—and Hector wins.
But when Hector saw great-hearted Patroclus trying to withdraw, wounded by the sharp bronze, then he came up close to him through the ranks and stabbed him in the lower belly with his spear, and drove the bronze clean through. He fell with a thud, and brought great grief to the Greek army.
— Rieu, Book 16
⚠️ The Final Strike
"Stabbed him in the lower belly"—this is a SLOW death. Not an instant kill to the heart or head. Patroclus dies in agony, conscious, with time to speak. Homer wants us to hear his final words.
Hector's Boast and Patroclus's Prophecy
As Patroclus lies dying, Hector boasts over him—claiming credit for the kill. But Patroclus, with his dying breath, delivers a prophecy that strips away Hector's triumph.
Then, as he was dying, Patroclus answered him: 'Hector, now is your time to boast and crow. Zeus son of Kronos and Apollo have given you victory—they were the ones who beat me easily; they stripped the armour from my shoulders. But if twenty men like you had faced me, they would all have died here, brought down by my spear. No, deadly Fate and Apollo killed me, and among mortals, Euphorbus. You were only the third to kill me. And I tell you this, take it to heart: you yourself are not long for this life. Already death and powerful fate are closing in on you, and you will be brought down by the hands of great-hearted Achilles, son of Aeacus.'
— Rieu, Book 16
Patroclus's Final Speech Decoded
"now is your time to boast and crow": Sarcastic—"enjoy it while it lasts"
"Zeus and Apollo have given you victory": Gives credit to gods, NOT Hector
"they stripped the armour from my shoulders": Accurate—Apollo did this, not Hector
"if twenty men like you had faced me": Devastating insult—you're not that good
"deadly Fate and Apollo killed me, and among mortals, Euphorbus": Names three killers—Hector is THIRD
"You were only the third to kill me": Strips away Hector's triumph completely
"you yourself are not long for this life": Prophecy—you'll die soon too
"brought down by... Achilles": Names his killer—Hector's death is certain
📌 Prophecy Always Comes True
When dying heroes prophesy in the Iliad, it ALWAYS comes true. Patroclus predicts Hector's death at Achilles' hands (Book 22), and he's exactly right. This prophecy transforms Hector's victory into a countdown to his own death.
Hector's Response: Denial and Bravado
Hector dismisses the prophecy, claiming he might kill Achilles instead. But his words ring hollow—we know Patroclus is right, and so does Hector, deep down.
Then Hector of the flashing helmet answered him: 'Patroclus, why do you prophesy my certain death? Who knows if Achilles, son of lovely-haired Thetis, may not be struck by my spear first and lose his own life?' With that he set his foot on the body and pulled the bronze spear from the wound, and thrust him away from the spear backwards. Then at once he went after godlike Automedon with the spear.
— Rieu, Book 16
💡 Hector's Denial
"Who knows if Achilles... may not be struck by my spear first?"—Hector HOPES he might survive, but the question reveals doubt. If he truly believed he'd win, he'd make a statement, not ask a question. His uncertainty shows he knows the prophecy is true.
The Meaning of Patroclus's Death
Book 16 ends with Patroclus dead and Hector claiming his armour. But what does this death MEAN for the epic as a whole?
Why Patroclus Had to Die
Narrative necessity: His death is the only thing that can bring Achilles back to battle
Character transformation: Achilles' wrath shifts from Agamemnon to Hector, from pride to grief
Thematic purpose: Shows the cost of kleos—glory requires death
Divine plan: Zeus promised Thetis the Greeks would suffer; Patroclus's death fulfills that promise
Book 1: Silent companion—barely mentioned, in Achilles' shadow
Book 9: Serves wine during embassy—supportive friend, no voice
Book 11: Sent to inquire about wounded—begins to feel for Greek suffering
Book 16: FINDS HIS VOICE—weeps, persuades, fights, dies gloriously
Book 18: Achilles learns of death—grief transforms him completely
Book 23: Ghost appears to Achilles—demands burial, reminds of friendship
⚠️ The Cost of Friendship
Patroclus dies BECAUSE he loves Achilles too much to watch Greeks suffer. His compassion kills him. Achilles will return to battle BECAUSE he loves Patroclus too much to let his death go unavenged. Love drives both actions, and love leads to tragedy. That's Homer's point: even the best human emotions have terrible consequences in war.
Key Quotations to Learn
Essential Quotes from Book 16
1. Patroclus weeping: "like a dark spring running down rock"—natural, overwhelming grief
2. Achilles' instructions: "When you have driven them from the ships, come back"—the order Patroclus will disobey
3. The spear Patroclus cannot take: "No other Greek could wield it, only Achilles"—limits of impersonation
4. Zeus's partial grant: "One half the Father granted, but not the other"—success + death
5. Apollo's warning: "Give way, Patroclus! It is not fated"—divine intervention preventing success
6. Patroclus's prophecy: "You yourself are not long for this life... brought down by Achilles"—accurate prediction of Book 22
7. The three-stage death: "Fate and Apollo killed me, and among mortals, Euphorbus. You were only third"—hierarchy of killers
Revision: Key Takeaways
What You Must Know for Essays
Book 16 is the structural pivot: Everything before leads here; everything after flows from here
Patroclus succeeds before he dies: He achieves Achilles' goal (save ships) but goes too far
The three-stage death matters: Apollo → Euphorbus → Hector shows divine responsibility
Dramatic irony creates tragedy: We know Patroclus will die from Zeus's prayer onward
The spear he cannot take is symbolic: Patroclus can look like Achilles but not BE Achilles
Patroclus's prophecy is accurate: Dying heroes tell the truth—Hector WILL die in Book 22
Success = death in this book: Every victory brings Patroclus closer to his end
Divine intervention is decisive: Mortals cannot resist when gods act directly
📌 Essay-Writing Tips for Book 16
For "character" questions: Focus on Patroclus's compassion (weeping for Greeks) vs Achilles' selfishness (wants kleos, gives restrictive orders). Show how Patroclus's virtue (empathy) leads to his death.
For "divine intervention" questions: Apollo's role is CRUCIAL—he strips armour, dazes Patroclus, enables mortal killers. This shows gods' power over human fate.
For "heroic code" questions: Patroclus violates Achilles' orders because success goes to his head—this is the danger of aristeia (glory moments). Heroes forget limits.
For "structure" questions: Book 16 is the turning point—transforms Achilles' wrath from political (Agamemnon) to personal (Hector), shifts emotional register from anger to grief.
For "tragedy" questions: Patroclus's death is tragic because it's PREVENTABLE (if he'd followed orders) yet INEVITABLE (Zeus denied his safe return). Free will meets fate.
Common Exam Questions on Book 16
Question Types You Might See
"How does Homer present Patroclus in Book 16?"
Focus on: weeping scene (compassion), persuasion speech (intelligence), aristeia (competence), disobedience (tragic flaw), prophecy (insight)
"Analyse the role of the gods in Book 16."
Focus on: Zeus's partial grant of prayer, Apollo's direct intervention (strips armour, warns at walls), Zeus's inability to save Sarpedon, divine hierarchy over mortal affairs
"To what extent is Patroclus responsible for his own death?"
Argue BOTH: (1) He disobeys Achilles, pursues to walls, attracts Apollo's anger [responsibility], AND (2) Zeus denied his return before battle started, Apollo attacks from behind [fate/external forces]
"How does Book 16 function as a turning point in the Iliad?"
Focus on: Achilles' wrath redirected from Agamemnon to Hector, Greeks saved but lose Patroclus, sets up Achilles' return (Books 19-22), emotional shift from political anger to personal grief
"Examine Homer's use of dramatic irony in Book 16."
Focus on: Zeus's prayer (we know Patroclus won't return), Patroclus's success (every victory brings him closer to death), Trojans thinking "Achilles" returned (it's Patroclus in disguise), Patroclus's prophecy (we know it's true)
Connecting Book 16 to Other Books
Book 16 in the Wider Epic
Connects to Book 1: Achilles' wrath begins here; Patroclus's death transforms it
Connects to Book 9: Achilles refused to return for gifts; now he'll return for revenge
Connects to Book 17: Fight over Patroclus's body mirrors fight over Sarpedon's body
Connects to Book 18: Achilles learns of death, grieves, orders new armour
Connects to Book 22: Patroclus's prophecy fulfilled—Hector dies at Achilles' hands
Connects to Book 23: Patroclus's ghost demands burial, funeral games honor him
Connects to Book 24: Achilles' grief for Patroclus parallels Priam's grief for Hector—shared humanity through loss
Final Thoughts: Why Book 16 Matters
Book 16 is where consequences become irreversible. Achilles' pride in Book 1 led to withdrawal; withdrawal led to Greek suffering; suffering led to Patroclus's compassion; compassion led to his intervention; intervention led to success; success led to overconfidence; overconfidence led to divine intervention; divine intervention led to death; death will lead to Achilles' revenge and Hector's death and Troy's eventual fall.
The Cascading Tragedy
One decision in Book 1 (Agamemnon takes Briseis) leads through Books 2-15 to Book 16 (Patroclus dies) which leads through Books 17-23 to Book 24 (Achilles returns Hector's body). The Iliad is about how ONE MOMENT of pride destroys countless lives. Book 16 is where that destruction becomes personal for Achilles—where he loses the person he loves most. That's why this book is the heart of the epic.
📌 Bottom Line for Revision
If you remember NOTHING else about Book 16, remember this: Patroclus dies because he succeeds too well. He saves the ships (achieves goal), keeps fighting (disobeys orders), reaches Troy's walls (pushes too far), attracts Apollo's intervention (gods punish hubris), and dies in three stages (Apollo → Euphorbus → Hector). His death transforms Achilles from a man nursing wounded pride into a man consumed by grief and rage. Everything after Book 16 is Achilles dealing with this loss. That's the pivot.