Books 9 and 10 aren't just important for CONTENT (the embassy, the night raid)—they're masterclasses in Homer's literary craft. The similes reveal psychology. The metaphors expose underlying truths. The speech structures show character. Understanding HOW Homer writes these books helps you analyse WHAT they mean.
The Big Idea
Every literary technique serves a PURPOSE. Similes aren't decoration—they reveal emotion and create meaning. Metaphors aren't just fancy language—they expose characters' worldviews. Speech structures aren't random—they show persuasive strategies and personality.
Key Techniques in Books 9 & 10
Epic Similes
Extended comparisons that create emotional atmosphere, reveal character psychology, and connect heroic world to everyday experience
Metaphors
Compressed comparisons (often in speeches) that reveal how characters conceptualise their situations and values
Speech Structure
Three major speeches in Book 9 show different rhetorical strategies and personalities through their organisation and emphasis
Contrast & Juxtaposition
Homer places scenes side-by-side to highlight differences: Greek vs Trojan missions, philosophical debate vs pragmatic action
Dramatic Irony
We know things characters don't—Dolon thinks he'll succeed; we know he'll die. This creates tension and pathos
Ring Composition
Book 10's symmetrical structure (Greek mission mirrors Trojan mission) creates aesthetic balance and thematic parallels
How to Analyse Literary Techniques
The Three-Step Method
1. IDENTIFY: What technique is Homer using? (simile, metaphor, structural pattern)
2. DESCRIBE: What exactly does the technique do? (compares X to Y, structures speech as A-B-C)
3. ANALYSE: Why does Homer use it HERE? What effect does it create? What does it reveal about character/theme/emotion?
💡 For Essays
Never just SPOT techniques ("Homer uses a simile here"). Always ANALYSE them ("Homer's simile comparing Achilles to a mother bird reveals his sense of being exploited—he starves himself whilst feeding others"). The technique only matters if you explain its EFFECT.
Similes in Book 9
Book 9 has FEWER similes than battle books—it's focused on speeches and debate. But the similes that DO appear are psychologically REVEALING, showing internal states rather than external action.
Simile 1: Agamemnon's Groaning
"As when the husband of fair-haired Hera lightens the sky, preparing to send down boundless rain or hail, or cover the fields with snow, or open the great mouth of bitter war somewhere on earth, so thick and fast did the groans come from deep in Agamemnon's heart, and his very inmost parts trembled."
— Book 9, lines 5-10
Analysis
Tenor: Agamemnon groaning in fear Vehicle: Zeus's lightning before storms/war Effect: Agamemnon's anxiety is compared to divine forces of destruction. His groans are like Zeus's lightning—harbingers of disaster. "Thick and fast" creates overwhelming frequency. "His very inmost parts trembled" = physical manifestation of psychological terror. This isn't just worry—it's existential dread.
Why This Simile Matters
What the Zeus Simile Reveals
Agamemnon's fear is COSMIC in scale—like natural disasters
Zeus imagery is ironic: Agamemnon caused this crisis, but he's comparing himself to Zeus
Lightning precedes storms—Agamemnon's groans precede the embassy's failure
The simile makes Agamemnon SYMPATHETIC—we feel his terror
"Bitter war" reminds us war itself is a disaster Zeus can unleash
This is the ONLY major simile in Book 9's first section. Homer uses it to establish the emotional atmosphere: desperation, fear, impending disaster. Everything that follows happens under this shadow.
Simile 2: The Heron Omen (Book 10 transition)
"Pallas Athene sent them a heron on their right. They could not see it through the darkness of the night, but they heard it cry."
— Book 10, lines 274-276
Analysis
Not technically a simile, but functions symbolically like one. The heron is a NIGHT HUNTER—hunts in darkness, uses stealth, strikes precisely. Perfect symbol for Odysseus and Diomedes's mission. "Could not see it" = emphasises night setting and working by senses other than sight (cunning, intelligence). Athene, goddess of wisdom, sends a creature that represents mētis (cunning) not biē (force).
The Absence of Similes
What's FASCINATING about Book 9 is how FEW similes it has compared to battle books. Why?
Battle Books (e.g. Book 4)
Multiple similes per page
Armies as waves, lions, fires
Creates visual spectacle
Provides emotional relief
Connects war to natural world
Book 9 (Embassy)
Very few similes
Focus on speeches and dialogue
Creates intimate, tense atmosphere
No relief—sustained tension
Emphasises human psychology
Homer's Deliberate Choice
The LACK of similes in Book 9 is itself a literary technique. Homer strips away the decorative language of battle scenes to create an intense, claustrophobic atmosphere. Three men trying to persuade one. No escape into the natural world. Just words, emotion, and failure.
Metaphors in Speeches
Whilst Book 9 has few extended similes, it's FULL of metaphors embedded in speeches. These reveal how characters conceptualise their situations and what they value.
Metaphor 1: Achilles as Mother Bird
"Like a bird that gives her unfledged chicks every morsel she can find, though she herself fares badly, so I have lain awake through many sleepless nights and spent long days in battle, risking my life against warriors fighting for their wives."
Greek army = unfledged chicks: Helpless, dependent, taking everything
"every morsel": He gives EVERYTHING—holds nothing back
"she herself fares badly": Self-sacrifice leads to starvation
Implication: The system EXPLOITS warriors like mothers are drained by demanding offspring
This metaphor is DEVASTATING because it reframes heroism as EXPLOITATION. Warriors aren't glorious—they're being used up. And notice: the mother bird's sacrifice is NATURAL, instinctive. But Achilles's sacrifice is for Agamemnon's benefit, not his own children. The metaphor exposes the system's injustice.
Metaphor 2: Life Cannot Return
"Cattle and fat sheep can be had for the taking; tripods and chestnut horses can be bought. But a man's life cannot come back, it cannot be recaptured or caught again, once it has passed the barrier of his teeth."
— Achilles, Book 9, lines 406-409
Analysing the "Barrier of Teeth" Metaphor
Breaking Down the Image
"Cattle and fat sheep can be had for the taking": Material wealth is REPLACEABLE
"tripods and chestnut horses can be bought": Even valuable things can be regained
"a man's life cannot come back": But LIFE is unique, irreplaceable
"passed the barrier of his teeth": Once breath leaves your mouth (dies), it's GONE
Implication: Trading life for material honour is INSANE—you're trading the irreplaceable for the replaceable
💡 The "Teeth" Image
"Barrier of his teeth" is a stunningly physical metaphor. Life = breath. Teeth = the boundary. Once breath passes through and leaves, you can't get it back. It's visceral, final, irreversible. This is Achilles making the abstract (death) brutally CONCRETE.
Metaphor 3: Phoenix's Prayers as Daughters of Zeus
"Prayers are the daughters of great Zeus—lame, wrinkled, with eyes cast down. They limp along in the wake of Delusion. But Delusion is strong and fleet of foot, and she far outruns them all, reaching every part of the world before them to make men stumble."
— Phoenix, Book 9, lines 502-506
Analysing Phoenix's Allegory
This isn't quite a metaphor—it's an ALLEGORY (extended personification). But it functions similarly, creating a conceptual framework for understanding forgiveness.
The Allegory Explained
Prayers = lame, wrinkled daughters: Forgiveness is slow, difficult, humble
"eyes cast down": Prayers approach with humility, shame
"far outruns them": Easier to hurt than to heal
"make men stumble": Delusion causes the initial harm; Prayers try to repair it
Phoenix is arguing: forgiveness is HARD (the daughters limp), but necessary. If you reject Prayers when they come, Zeus punishes you. It's emotional manipulation dressed as mythology, but it's also psychologically true—forgiveness IS harder than anger.
Why Achilles Rejects It
Achilles sees through this. Phoenix is saying "accept the prayers (gifts) because the gods demand it." But Achilles doesn't believe gifts = prayers. Real prayers require genuine remorse, which Agamemnon hasn't shown. The allegory is BEAUTIFUL but doesn't apply to his situation.
How Metaphors Reveal Character
Achilles's Metaphors
Physical, visceral ("barrier of teeth")
Focus on exploitation and loss
Emphasise irreplaceability of life
Challenge conventional thinking
Phoenix's Metaphors
Mythological, abstract (Zeus's daughters)
Focus on social harmony and forgiveness
Emphasise divine will and tradition
Reinforce conventional values
The metaphors each character chooses REVEALS their worldview. Achilles uses stark, physical metaphors because he's confronting harsh truths. Phoenix uses elaborate mythological metaphors because he's trying to restore social order through tradition.
Similes in Book 10
Book 10 returns to ACTION, so Homer uses more similes—especially PREDATOR similes. These create atmosphere (night, danger, hunting) and reveal the brutal pragmatism of intelligence operations.
Simile 1: Dolon as Prey
"Like two sharp-toothed hounds that are expert at hunting, pursuing a fawn or a hare through the woods relentlessly, and the quarry runs yelping in front of them, so the two men, Odysseus and Diomedes, cut Dolon off from his army and gave him chase."
— Book 10, lines 360-364
Analysis
Tenor: Odysseus and Diomedes chasing Dolon Vehicle: Hunting dogs chasing prey Effect: Dolon is PREY, not a warrior. "Yelping" is animal sound—he's reduced to terrified quarry. "Expert at hunting" = Odysseus and Diomedes are professionals; Dolon is outmatched. "Relentlessly" = no escape. The simile removes any heroic dignity—this is just predators hunting food.
Why the Hunting Simile Matters
What the Predator Imagery Reveals
Night raids aren't "heroic"—they're HUNTING
Dolon isn't a warrior—he's PREY (fawn/hare = defenceless animals)
Two hunters vs one prey = unfair advantage is STRATEGIC
"Yelping" = Dolon's terror is animal-like, instinctive
The simile creates PITY for Dolon whilst showing why he dies
Homer could have used a battle simile (lions vs boar, etc.). Instead, he chooses HUNTING—which emphasises intelligence, strategy, and inevitable outcome. Dolon never had a chance.
Simile 2: Diomedes as Lion Among Sheep
"As a lion comes on a flock of sheep or goats without a shepherd and falls on them with deadly intent, so the son of Tydeus attacked the Thracians till he had killed twelve men."
— Book 10, lines 485-488
Analysis
Tenor: Diomedes killing sleeping Thracians Vehicle: Lion attacking undefended livestock Effect: "WITHOUT A SHEPHERD" is key—these men are DEFENCELESS. Lion = natural predator; sheep = natural prey. No contest. "Deadly intent" = this is slaughter, not battle. The simile removes moral ambiguity—this is nature, predators kill prey, that's how it works.
The "Shepherd" Detail
"Without a shepherd" is CRUCIAL. Why emphasise this?
Sheep WITH shepherd = protected: Shepherd drives away predators
Sheep WITHOUT shepherd = doomed: Totally vulnerable
The Thracians' "shepherd" = their leaders: Rhesus is asleep; no one's guarding them
Implication: Leadership failure gets people killed
Homer's point: These deaths are PREVENTABLE—if they'd posted guards, they'd live
💡 Moral Ambiguity
The simile makes Diomedes seem like a natural force (lion), not a murderer. But "sheep without a shepherd" also creates PITY—these men died because of poor leadership, not because they deserved death. Homer shows the slaughter is both militarily necessary AND tragic.
Simile 3: Diomedes and Odysseus Like Lions
"The two of them went on through the darkness of the night through arms and black blood and corpses."
— Book 10, lines 469-470
(Not technically a simile, but creating atmosphere through accumulated detail: "darkness", "black blood", "corpses" = horror imagery that functions like extended simile)
Comparing Book 10's Similes
Battle Book Similes
Lions vs boars (equals fighting)
Waves crashing (overwhelming force)
Fire spreading (destructive power)
Create sense of glory and drama
Book 10 Similes
Hunters vs prey (unequal power)
Lions vs sheep (defenceless victims)
Emphasise vulnerability, not glory
Create sense of efficient killing
Why Homer Chooses Predator Similes
Book 10 isn't about heroic aristeia—it's about INTELLIGENCE OPERATIONS. Predator similes (dogs hunting, lions among sheep) emphasise ADVANTAGE, STRATEGY, and INEVITABILITY rather than equal combat. Homer's showing a different kind of warfare: cunning, not courage.
The Three Speeches of Book 9
Book 9's three major speeches (Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax) are MASTERCLASSES in rhetoric. Each has a different structure that reveals the speaker's personality and strategy.
Odysseus's Speech: Classical Rhetoric
Odysseus's Rhetorical Structure
Exordium (Opening): Thank Achilles for hospitality—establish rapport
Narratio (Narrative): Describe the crisis—Greeks desperate, Hector threatening
Propositio (Proposal): Here's what Agamemnon offers—list gifts in detail
Peroratio (Conclusion): Take pity on Greeks, win eternal fame
This is TEXTBOOK classical rhetoric. Odysseus follows the structure taught in ancient rhetorical handbooks. It's professional, polished, strategic—and completely ineffective because Achilles rejects the framework itself.
Phoenix's Speech: Storytelling Structure
Phoenix's Narrative Structure
Personal appeal: "Dear child"—invoke father-son bond
Backstory: I raised you, you're like my son
Allegory: Prayers vs Delusion (mythological framework)
Exemplum (Example): Tale of Meleager—cautionary parallel
Application: Don't be like Meleager—accept gifts NOW
Phoenix uses STORY rather than argument. This is older, more traditional persuasive technique—use myth and example to teach lessons. It's less formal than Odysseus, more emotional, more personal. But still fails.
Ajax's Speech: Blunt Simplicity
Ajax's Non-Structure
No opening formalities: Jumps straight in with frustration
One main point: Your anger is disproportionate (blood-price argument)
Appeal to friendship: We're under your roof, we're your friends
No elaborate conclusion: Just stops, having made his point
Ajax REFUSES rhetorical structure. His speech is the SHORTEST and least polished. But paradoxically, it's the most EFFECTIVE because it's HONEST. Achilles responds positively ("everything you say is after my own heart") even though he still refuses.
Structure Reveals Character
Odysseus's elaborate structure shows his diplomatic training. Phoenix's storytelling shows his traditional values. Ajax's lack of structure shows his directness. Homer uses FORM to reveal PERSONALITY—not just what they say, but HOW they say it.
Achilles's Response Pattern
Achilles responds to each speaker differently, and his responses get progressively SHORTER and more HONEST.
To Odysseus (Longest)
Rejects rhetoric itself
Philosophical argument
Questions entire value system
Most hostile tone
To Phoenix (Medium)
Gentle but firm
Acknowledges love
Still refuses
Warns about divided loyalty
To Ajax (Shortest)
Agrees with his logic
Admits Ajax is right
But rage overrides reason
Offers small concession
The Pattern
Responds to dishonesty with hostility
Responds to emotion with gentleness
Responds to honesty with agreement
But principles override everything
Structural Contrasts
Homer uses JUXTAPOSITION—placing scenes side-by-side—to create meaning through contrast. Books 9 and 10 are full of deliberate oppositions.
Book 9 vs Book 10: Philosophy vs Pragmatism
Book 9
Static: Men sitting, talking
Philosophical: Questioning values
Speeches: Rhetoric and persuasion
Fails: Achilles refuses
Tone: Tense, claustrophobic, intellectual
Book 10
Dynamic: Men moving, acting
Pragmatic: Solving problems
Action: Deception and violence
Succeeds: Mission accomplished
Tone: Suspenseful, visceral, practical
Why Homer Places Them Together
Book 9 shows heroism as VALUES and PRINCIPLES. Book 10 shows heroism as EFFECTIVENESS and ACTION. Together, they give us a COMPLETE picture: war requires both thinking and doing, both philosophy and pragmatism. Neither alone is sufficient.
Greek vs Trojan Missions (Book 10)
Greek Mission
TWO experienced warriors
Diomedes CHOOSES partner
Both skilled in war
Athene sends omen
Careful planning
Succeeds completely
Trojan Mission
ONE volunteer (Dolon)
Hector asks for volunteers
Dolon inexperienced
No divine signs
Motivated by greed
Fails utterly
The parallel missions create DRAMATIC IRONY. We watch both sides plan reconnaissance. We KNOW the Greek mission will succeed and the Trojan will fail. The contrast shows that in war, COMPETENCE matters: two skilled warriors beat one greedy amateur.
Dramatic Irony in Book 10
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows something characters don't. Book 10 is FULL of it.
Examples of Dramatic Irony
Dolon thinks he'll succeed: We know Odysseus and Diomedes are waiting
Dolon promises offerings to Apollo: He'll never live to make them
Odysseus says "take heart": We know he's about to kill Dolon
Rhesus sleeps peacefully: We know Diomedes is approaching to kill him
Dolon reveals Rhesus's location: He's sealing Rhesus's fate whilst trying to save himself
💡 Why Use Dramatic Irony?
Dramatic irony creates TENSION (we know disaster is coming) and PATHOS (we pity characters who don't know they're doomed). When Dolon promises Apollo a sacrifice, it's TRAGIC because we know he'll die. Homer makes us feel the cost of war even when showing necessary military action.
Achilles's Lyre: A Central Image
They found him delighting his heart with a clear-toned lyre, a beautiful thing, skilfully made, with a silver bridge. He had taken it when he sacked the city of Eëtion. With this he was entertaining himself, singing of the glorious deeds of men.
— Book 9, lines 186-189
Why This Image Is Central
Achilles = singer: He's become a BARD, not just a warrior
"glorious deeds of men": He's singing about KLEOS whilst rejecting it
The lyre is war-loot: Taken from Eëtion (Andromache's father)—beauty from violence
Patroclus listens silently: Their relationship shown through shared appreciation of art
Symbolises transformation: Achilles has moved from DOING heroism to CONTEMPLATING it
The Poet-Warrior
This image encapsulates Achilles's journey in Book 9. He's questioning heroism because he's stepped OUTSIDE it—he's become the singer, not the subject. This distance allows philosophical reflection but also isolation. You can't be both the bard and the hero simultaneously.
Key Points for Revision
Book 9 has few similes: Creates intimate, tense atmosphere focused on speeches
Agamemnon's groaning = Zeus's lightning: Cosmic scale of fear, harbinger of disaster
Achilles as mother bird: Reveals exploitation—he starves whilst feeding others
"Barrier of his teeth": Life irreplaceable once breath leaves—visceral finality of death
Prayers as Zeus's daughters: Phoenix's allegory—forgiveness slow, harm fast
Dolon as hunted prey: Predator similes emphasise intelligence operations, not heroic combat
Diomedes as lion among sheep: "Without a shepherd" = leadership failure gets people killed
Book 9 vs 10: Philosophy vs pragmatism—both necessary for complete heroism
Achilles with lyre: Transformed from warrior to poet—contemplating heroism from outside
Using Techniques in Essays
💡 Essay Writing Tip
When writing about literary techniques, ALWAYS link them to meaning. Don't just say "Homer uses a simile comparing Dolon to prey." Say "Homer's simile comparing Dolon to hunted prey strips away heroic dignity, showing intelligence operations as brutal pragmatism rather than glorious combat, which reveals Book 10's alternative model of heroism based on effectiveness not honour."
The Formula: TECHNIQUE → EFFECT → MEANING
TECHNIQUE: What Homer does (simile, metaphor, structure)
EFFECT: What it creates (atmosphere, emotion, emphasis)
MEANING: What it reveals (character, theme, values)