Homer doesn't just TELL a story—he CRAFTS it using specific literary devices that create emotional impact, reveal character, and build meaning. Understanding these techniques isn't just academic box-ticking. It's understanding HOW Homer makes you care about characters and WHY certain moments hit so hard.
The Big Idea
Every technique serves a PURPOSE. Similes aren't decoration—they reveal character and create emotional resonance. Epithets aren't filler—they emphasise key traits and build rhythm. Speeches aren't just dialogue—they drive plot and establish relationships. Understanding technique = understanding meaning.
This lesson focuses on the MOST IMPORTANT techniques in Books 1 & 3, with specific Rieu examples you can use in essays. We'll cover what each technique IS, HOW Homer uses it, and WHY it matters.
Key Techniques in Books 1 & 3
Similes
"like a man who has come across a snake in a mountain glen"
Extended comparisons that reveal character and create vivid imagery
Epithets
"swift-footed Achilles" "godlike Paris"
Formulaic descriptions that emphasise key traits and aid oral performance
Speeches
Direct discourse revealing character through what they say and how
Characters speak for themselves—Homer shows rather than tells
Ring Composition
Book 1 opens/closes with supplication for a child
Structural framing that creates thematic unity and symmetry
Dramatic Irony
Helen looks for brothers who are already dead
Audience knows what characters don't—creates pathos and tension
Contrast
Paris vs Hector, Achilles vs Agamemnon
Juxtaposition reveals character through comparison
Homeric Similes: Extended Comparisons
Homeric (or "epic") similes are EXTENDED comparisons—sometimes several lines long—that compare something in the narrative to something from everyday life (usually nature, animals, or weather). They're not just decoration—they reveal character, create emotional resonance, and provide breathing space in intense scenes.
How Similes Work
Structure: "X was like Y"—but expanded with vivid details Function: Makes abstract emotions/situations concrete and relatable Effect: Creates vivid mental images, reveals character, builds emotional connection
The Snake Simile: Paris's Cowardice
Book 3's most famous simile perfectly captures Paris's character in a single image:
When godlike Paris saw Menelaus come out into the open, his heart sank and he recoiled into the ranks of his own men to save his life, like a man who has come across a snake in a mountain glen and shrinks back with trembling limbs and the blood receding from his cheeks.
— Book 3, Rieu lines 30-37
Breaking Down the Simile
The comparison: Paris = man encountering snake
The vehicle (snake scene): Natural, relatable fear—everyone understands this reaction
Physical details: "trembling limbs," "blood receding"—visceral, embodied terror
The irony: Paris reacts like the VICTIM but HE'S the danger (he caused the war!)
Characterisation: Instant—we know Paris is a coward in one image
💡 Why This Simile Works
Homer could've just said "Paris was afraid." Instead, he gives us a PICTURE. We SEE the encounter, FEEL the instinctive terror, understand the automatic recoil. The simile makes Paris's cowardice vivid and memorable. Plus, the snake imagery is ironic—Paris should recognise himself as the threat, not Menelaus.
The Lion Simile: Menelaus Hunting Paris
Later in Book 3, Homer uses another animal simile—but this time showing Menelaus's predatory intent:
Menelaus caught sight of Paris coming out from the crowd, and pounced on him like a lion on a carcass when he finds a horned stag or a wild goat and is hungry. He tears at it greedily, even though swift hounds and lusty lads set upon him. That was how Menelaus rejoiced when his eyes fell on godlike Paris.
— Book 3, Rieu lines 23-26
The Lion Simile Analysis
Menelaus = lion: Predator, powerful, focused
Paris = carcass/prey: Already dead meat in Menelaus's eyes
"hungry": Menelaus has waited YEARS for this revenge—he's starving for it
"tears at it greedily": Violent, messy imagery—no mercy
"even though... set upon him": Nothing will stop him—single-minded focus
"rejoiced": Menelaus is HAPPY—this is satisfaction, not just duty
Snake vs Lion: The Contrast
Paris = prey fleeing from snake (victim mentality). Menelaus = predator hunting prey (agency, power). The TWO animal similes in quick succession create a hierarchy: Menelaus is the hunter, Paris the hunted. The similes SHOW you who has power without Homer stating it directly.
Apollo's Plague: The Nightfall Simile
Book 1's most striking simile compares Apollo's approach to nightfall—creating an ominous, unstoppable sense of doom:
Down from the peaks of Olympus he strode, nursing his wrath, with his bow and covered quiver on his shoulders. The arrows rattled on the back of the angry god as he moved, and his coming was like nightfall.
— Book 1, Rieu lines 44-47
Why "Like Nightfall" Is Perfect
Inevitability: Night WILL come—you can't stop it
Darkness: Death, fear, the unknown approaching
Covering everything: Night falls on ALL—collective punishment
Natural force: Apollo's wrath is cosmic, not personal
Slow but certain: Darkness descends gradually but completely
💡 Essay Point
"Homer's nightfall simile (Book 1, 47) establishes Apollo's wrath as an unstoppable natural force. Just as darkness inevitably covers the land, divine punishment will inevitably fall on the Greeks. The simile transforms divine anger from abstract concept into visceral, approaching doom—creating atmospheric dread that pervades the entire plague sequence."
Why Homer Uses Similes
Characterisation
Reveals inner states through external images
Shows rather than tells personality
Creates memorable character moments
Example: Snake simile = instant understanding of Paris's cowardice
Emotional Resonance
Makes abstract emotions concrete
Creates relatable, everyday comparisons
Builds audience empathy
Example: Lion simile = we FEEL Menelaus's hunger for revenge
Similes for Oral Performance
Remember: the Iliad was originally PERFORMED orally. Extended similes give the audience mental "breathing space" during intense scenes. While you're imagining the lion hunting, you're processing the emotional weight of Menelaus's rage. Similes slow down narrative time, making key moments more impactful.
Epithets: Formulaic Descriptions
Epithets are repeated descriptive phrases attached to characters, places, or things. "Swift-footed Achilles," "godlike Paris," "white-armed Hera"—you'll see these CONSTANTLY. They're not just filler or lazy writing. They serve multiple purposes in oral poetry.
What Epithets Do
Aid oral performance: Fit metrical patterns, help poet remember lines Emphasise key traits: Constantly remind audience of character's defining features Create continuity: Same character = same epithet = recognition Build characterisation: Choice of epithet reveals what matters about a character
Achilles' Epithets: What They Reveal
Achilles gets several different epithets depending on context. Each emphasises a different aspect of his character:
"Swift-footed Achilles"
Most common—appears throughout Book 1
Emphasises his physical excellence and warrior prowess. Speed = ability to pursue/escape enemies
Emphasises his semi-divine status (mother = Thetis). Sets him apart from ordinary mortals
"The best of the Greeks"
Used by Achilles himself—Book 1, line 244
His self-identification—what he believes defines him. The central claim in the quarrel
💡 Why "Swift-footed" Matters
Even when Achilles is SITTING by his hut refusing to fight (Book 1), Homer still calls him "swift-footed Achilles." The epithet reminds us what he COULD be doing. It's ironic—his greatest physical trait (speed) is useless while he's withdrawn. The epithet creates tension between potential and actual action.
Paris' Epithets: The Contradiction
Paris's main epithet is "godlike Paris"—which becomes IRONIC when we see how he actually behaves:
When godlike Paris saw Menelaus come out into the open, his heart sank and he recoiled into the ranks of his own men to save his life...
— Book 3, Rieu lines 30-33
The Irony of "Godlike"
"Godlike" typically means: Excellent, powerful, worthy of respect
But Paris immediately: Runs away in terror—opposite of godlike behaviour
The contrast: Divine epithet + cowardly action = dramatic irony
Why Homer does this: Highlights gap between Paris's appearance (beautiful, "godlike") and reality (cowardly)
Epithets Can Be Ironic
Homer uses "godlike Paris" throughout Book 3—even right before Paris runs away, and right after he's rescued by Aphrodite. The repetition becomes ironic: Paris has the APPEARANCE of divinity (beauty, divine favour) but none of the SUBSTANCE (courage, honour). The epithet stops being complimentary and becomes cutting.
Divine Epithets: Establishing Character
Gods get epithets that emphasise their defining traits or domains:
"White-armed Hera"
Physical beauty, divine status
White skin = aristocratic beauty (not tanned from labour). Emphasises her as queen of gods
"Grey-eyed Athene"
Distinctive physical feature
Grey/owl eyes associated with wisdom and war. Instantly recognisable trait
"Far-shooting Apollo"
His primary attribute
God of archery—shoots from distance. Relevant in Book 1 when he shoots plague arrows at Greeks
"Golden Aphrodite"
Beauty and luxury
Gold = valuable, beautiful, desirable. Perfect for goddess of love and beauty
Using Epithets in Essays
Don't just IDENTIFY epithets—ANALYSE what they reveal and why Homer chooses them:
Good Essay Example
"Homer's repeated epithet 'swift-footed Achilles' gains ironic weight during his withdrawal. While he sits idle by his ships (Book 1, 348-356), the epithet constantly reminds the audience of his unused military prowess. The speed that should be destroying Trojans is instead wasted—heightening the tragedy of his mēnis. When Thetis finds him 'by the shore of the grey sea' (1.350), Homer still calls him 'swift-footed,' creating tension between potential (his speed) and actuality (his stillness). The formulaic epithet becomes a tool for emphasising Achilles' self-destructive choice."
💡 What Makes This Good
✓ Identifies the epithet
✓ Explains what it normally means
✓ Shows how context creates irony
✓ Connects to broader themes (mēnis, waste)
✓ Uses specific Rieu line references
✓ Makes analytical point about Homer's technique
Direct Speech: Character Through Words
Homer uses DIRECT SPEECH constantly—characters speak for themselves rather than Homer narrating what they said. This technique reveals personality, creates dramatic tension, and builds relationships. Books 1 and 3 are dominated by speeches.
Why Direct Speech Matters
Shows, doesn't tell: We hear how characters express themselves Reveals character: Word choice, tone, rhetoric expose personality Creates drama: Conflict plays out in real-time dialogue Builds relationships: How characters address each other matters
The Sceptre Oath: Rhetorical Mastery
Achilles' sceptre oath (Book 1) shows Homer's sophisticated use of speech to reveal character and build tension:
By this sceptre, which will never put out leaves or twigs again, once cut from its stem in the hills... By this I solemnly swear that the day is coming when the Greeks one and all will miss Achilles badly, and when in your despair you will be powerless to help them as they fall in their multitudes to man-slaying Hector.
— Book 1, Rieu lines 234-244
Rhetorical Techniques in This Speech
Extended metaphor: Dead sceptre = severed relationship
Formal oath structure: "By this... I swear"—ceremonial language
Prophecy: "the day is coming"—certainty, not threat
Second person: "YOU will... YOU will"—direct accusation
Emotive language: "despair," "powerless," "tear your heart out"
Vivid imagery: "fall in their multitudes"—mass death visualised
Hector's Insult: Brutal Honesty
Compare Achilles' sophisticated rhetoric to Hector's direct, cutting attack on Paris:
Paris, you handsome woman-crazy impostor, why were you ever born? Why did you never die unwed?... I can just imagine the jeers of our enemies... They thought we had a champion in the field because you are good-looking. But you have neither pluck nor perseverance.
— Book 3, Rieu lines 39-45
Speech Techniques Used
Rhetorical questions: "Why were you born?"—doesn't expect answer, just emphasises worthlessness
Conditional wish: "died unwed"—wishes Paris didn't exist
Imagined perspective: "jeers of our enemies"—uses Greek viewpoint against Paris
Physical description as insult: "handsome" becomes mocking when paired with "impostor"
Contrast: "good-looking BUT no pluck"—appearance vs reality
Ring Composition: Structural Framing
Ring composition is when Homer structures a book/scene so it BEGINS and ENDS with similar elements, creating a sense of completion and thematic unity.
How Ring Composition Works
Book opens with Element A → narrative develops → Book closes with Element A'
Creates symmetry, emphasises themes, provides closure
Book 1's Ring: Supplication
Opening (Lines 8-52)
FATHER (Chryses) supplicates for CHILD (Chryseis)
Agamemnon refuses
Apollo punishes Greeks
Eventually Chryseis returned
Closing (Lines 348-611)
MOTHER (Thetis) supplicates for CHILD (Achilles)
Zeus agrees
Will punish Greeks
Achilles will eventually get satisfaction
Why This Matters
The ring structure emphasises PARENTAL LOVE as framing device. Both supplications succeed—showing divine intervention responds to parental desperation. The symmetry also shows that Book 1's action is COMPLETE: problem introduced (Chryses), problem resolved (Chryseis returned), NEW problem created (Achilles' mēnis), solution initiated (Thetis/Zeus).
Dramatic Irony: When Audience Knows More
Dramatic irony occurs when the AUDIENCE knows something the CHARACTERS don't. This creates pathos, tension, or (sometimes) dark humour.
Helen's Dead Brothers
She looked for her brothers, Castor and Polydeuces, but failed to see them, though they were already hidden by the life-giving earth in their own country, Lacedaemon.
— Book 3, Rieu lines 236-238
Why This Is Devastating
Helen doesn't know: She's looking for brothers who are dead
WE know: Homer tells US but not Helen
The pathos: Her search is futile—adds to her losses
The guilt: They died (in other myths) because of her
Foreshadowing: Achilles' Prophecy
When Achilles makes his sceptre oath, it's PROPHECY for the audience—we know it will come true:
How Foreshadowing Works
Book 1: Achilles predicts Greeks will "fall in multitudes to Hector"
Books 8-17: This ACTUALLY HAPPENS—Hector nearly destroys Greek army
Effect: When prophecy comes true, we remember THIS moment. Creates narrative tension.
Contrast & Juxtaposition
Homer deliberately places opposites next to each other—creating clarity through comparison.
Key Contrasts in Books 1 & 3
Paris vs Hector
Book 3 opens with their confrontation
Coward vs hero, beauty vs courage, pleasure vs duty—same family, opposite values
Achilles vs Agamemnon
Book 1 quarrel
Merit vs rank, fighter vs commander, earned honour vs inherited authority
Divine vs Mortal
Throughout both books
Gods laugh at end of Book 1 while mortals suffer—immortals can afford levity, mortals can't
Speech vs Action
Paris talks vs Paris fights
Paris sounds reasonable defending himself—then immediately loses duel. Words ≠ deeds
Using Literary Techniques in Essays
Complete Essay Paragraph Example
"Homer employs contrasting animal similes in Book 3 to establish the power dynamic between Menelaus and Paris. Menelaus is compared to 'a lion on a carcass when he finds a horned stag... and is hungry' (lines 23-24), portraying him as predator, focused and violent. The lion 'tears at it greedily,' suggesting years of pent-up rage finally satisfied. Conversely, Paris is compared to 'a man who has come across a snake in a mountain glen and shrinks back with trembling limbs' (lines 33-35). The snake simile positions Paris as prey fleeing from threat—yet ironically, PARIS is the real threat who violated xenia and caused the war. By juxtaposing these similes, Homer visually establishes Menelaus's dominance before the duel even begins. The audience immediately understands: lion hunts prey; Paris is doomed. This makes Aphrodite's subsequent intervention (lines 375-382) even more frustrating—divine cheating rescues Paris from earned consequences. The similes thus serve dual purpose: characterisation (revealing Paris's cowardice and Menelaus's predatory intent) and foreshadowing (the natural order Paris disrupts through divine favour)."
What Makes This Effective
✓ Names specific techniques (simile, juxtaposition, irony)
✓ Quotes Rieu with line references
✓ Explains HOW technique works
✓ Connects to themes (divine intervention, honour)
✓ Shows FUNCTION—why Homer uses these techniques
✓ Makes sophisticated analytical points
Key Takeaways
Essential Literary Techniques
Similes: Extended comparisons revealing character and creating imagery (snake, lion, nightfall)
Speeches: Direct discourse showing personality through rhetoric and word choice
Ring composition: Structural framing creating thematic unity (Book 1: supplication)
Dramatic irony: Audience knows more than characters (Helen's brothers)
Foreshadowing: Prophecies that come true (Achilles' sceptre oath)
Contrast: Juxtaposition revealing character through comparison
Remember
Every technique serves a PURPOSE. Don't just identify—ANALYSE. Ask: Why does Homer use this HERE? What effect does it create? How does it reveal character or advance themes? Good literary analysis moves from WHAT (identifying technique) to HOW (explaining mechanics) to WHY (analysing purpose and effect).