2.4 Key Characters - Classicalia

Why Character Matters in Homer

Homer doesn't just TELL you what characters are like—he SHOWS you through their words, actions, and how others react to them. Books 1 and 3 introduce five key figures whose personalities, conflicts, and choices drive the entire epic.

The Core Five

Greeks: Achilles (best warrior), Agamemnon (commander)
Trojans: Hector (defender), Paris (cause of war)
Caught between: Helen (the prize both sides fight for)

These aren't simple "heroes" and "villains." Everyone has strengths and flaws. Everyone makes terrible decisions. Everyone suffers. That complexity is what makes the Iliad timeless.

Character Overview

Character	Role	Key Traits	Central Conflict
Achilles	Greek warrior	Excellent fighter Wrathful Principled	Honour vs loyalty to army
Agamemnon	Greek commander	Authoritative Greedy Arrogant	Authority vs merit
Hector	Trojan defender	Courageous Responsible Duty-bound	Family vs duty
Paris	Trojan prince	Handsome Cowardly Self-indulgent	Pleasure vs responsibility
Helen	Cause of war	Beautiful Self-aware Powerless	Agency vs fate

Achilles: The Greatest Greek

Who Is Achilles?

Son of Peleus (mortal king) and Thetis (sea-goddess). Prophesied to die young at Troy but achieve eternal glory, or live long in obscurity. Chose Troy. The greatest warrior in the Greek army—possibly the greatest warrior ever. But when Book 1 opens, he's about to stop fighting entirely.

Achilles IS the Iliad. The first word is "anger"—HIS anger. The plot is driven by his withdrawal and eventual return. Understanding Achilles means understanding why honour matters more than survival.

'You shameless swine, with eyes forever fixed on profit! How can you expect any Greek to give you loyal service when you send him on a raid or into battle? It was not Trojan spearmen who brought me here to fight. I have no quarrel with them... We came here for YOUR sake, you shameless rogue, to please YOU, to get satisfaction from the Trojans for Menelaus and yourself—a fact you utterly ignore.'

— Achilles to Agamemnon, Book 1, Rieu lines 149-158

What This Speech Reveals

"shameless swine": Achilles doesn't hide contempt—he's brutally honest
"eyes forever fixed on profit": Attacks Agamemnon's motivations, not just actions
"I have no quarrel with them": Achilles sees through the war—it's not HIS fight
"We came here for YOUR sake": This war benefits Agamemnon, not the warriors
"a fact you utterly ignore": Agamemnon is ungrateful for sacrifices made for him

Achilles' Key Traits

Strengths

Unmatched warrior: "Best of the Greeks"—everyone knows it
Principled: Won't compromise honour for convenience
Honest: Says exactly what he thinks
Self-aware: Understands his own motivations
Loyal to friends: Deep bonds (Patroclus especially)

Flaws

Excessive pride: Can't accept ANY dishonour
Wrathful: His mēnis causes thousands of deaths
Unforgiving: Refuses Agamemnon's compensation (Book 9)
Self-centred: Lets Greeks die to prove his point
All-or-nothing: Can't compromise or negotiate

💡 The Achilles Paradox

Achilles is BOTH right AND wrong. He's right that Agamemnon dishonoured him unjustly. He's right that merit should matter more than rank. He's right to be angry. But he's WRONG to let thousands die to satisfy his wounded pride. Homer doesn't resolve this—he makes YOU think about whether Achilles' reaction is justified.

The Sceptre Oath: Achilles at His Most Powerful

After Athene stops him from murdering Agamemnon, Achilles channels his rage into words. This speech is DEVASTATING—prophecy, curse, and oath combined.

'But I tell you this, and I swear a solemn oath upon it. By this sceptre, which will never put out leaves or twigs again, once cut from its stem in the hills... By this I solemnly swear that the day is coming when the Greeks one and all will miss Achilles badly, and when in your despair you will be powerless to help them as they fall in their multitudes to man-slaying Hector. Then you will tear your heart out in remorse for giving no respect to the best of the Greeks.'

— Achilles, Book 1, Rieu lines 234-244

Why This Speech Is Masterful

Uses extended metaphor (dead sceptre = severed relationship)
Makes prophecy that WILL come true (Books 8-17)
Predicts Agamemnon's emotional state ("in your despair")
Emphasises collective suffering ("fall in their multitudes")
Ends by reasserting his identity ("best of the Greeks")

What Makes Achilles Terrifying

He's RIGHT: This prophecy comes true exactly as he predicts
He's PATIENT: He'll wait for Greeks to suffer before returning
He's STRATEGIC: Asks Zeus to help Trojans—uses divine intervention
He's COMMITTED: Even Book 9's massive compensation won't change his mind

Achilles' Withdrawal: Active, Not Passive

Modern readers sometimes think Achilles is just sulking. He's not. His withdrawal is STRATEGIC and ACTIVE. He's not hiding—he's making a point through deliberate inaction.

'Mother, since you bore me to live the briefest of lives, surely Olympian Zeus owes me some measure of respect. But he pays me no such honour... Go then to Olympus and... ask him to bring help to the Trojans, to pen the Greeks in between their ships and the sea, and slaughter them there, so that they may all enjoy their king.'

— Achilles to Thetis, Book 1, Rieu lines 352-356, 407-410

The Logic of Withdrawal

"since you bore me to live the briefest of lives": References his prophecy—dying young means honour matters MORE
"surely Zeus owes me some measure of respect": If life is short, compensation is due
"ask him to bring help to the Trojans": Wants his OWN SIDE to lose—shows depth of betrayal
"so that they may all enjoy their king": Sarcasm—let them see what Agamemnon's leadership brings

Achilles Throughout the Iliad

Book 1: Withdraws in mēnis—lets Greeks suffer
Books 2-8: Absent—Greeks slowly lose ground
Book 9: Refuses compensation—won't forgive Agamemnon
Book 16: Sends Patroclus (wearing his armour)—fatal decision
Books 19-22: Returns in grief-maddened rage—kills Hector
Book 24: Returns Hector's body—mēnis finally cooling

Agamemnon: Authority Without Wisdom

Who Is Agamemnon?

King of Mycenae, brother of Menelaus, commander-in-chief of the Greek forces. Has the RANK, the AUTHORITY, and the POWER. But as Book 1 immediately shows, he lacks the WISDOM and JUDGEMENT needed to lead effectively. His first action in the Iliad? Dishonour Apollo's priest and trigger a plague.

Agamemnon is the Iliad's great example of leadership failure. He's not stupid or incompetent—he's PROUD, GREEDY, and unable to see past his own status. Homer shows us what happens when authority and merit don't align.

'Old man, don't let me catch you loitering by the hollow ships today or coming back again in the future, or you may find the god's staff and emblems a very poor defence. That girl I will not release. She will grow old in my household, a long way from her country, working at the loom, sharing my bed. Now get out and don't provoke me, if you want to save your skin.'

— Agamemnon to Chryses, Book 1, Rieu lines 26-32

First Impressions: Character Established Immediately

"don't let me catch you loitering": Treats elderly priest like a beggar—shows contempt
"you may find the god's staff... a very poor defence": Dismisses Apollo's protection—pure hubris
"That girl I will not release": Flat refusal despite sacred emblems and ransom
"working at the loom, sharing my bed": Makes slavery and sexual exploitation explicit
"don't provoke me": Makes HIMSELF the threat, not Apollo—completely misreads the situation

💡 Why This Matters

This is Agamemnon's FIRST SPEECH in the entire Iliad. Homer establishes his character instantly: arrogant, dismissive of gods and mortals, concerned only with his own honour. Everything that follows—the plague, the quarrel, the war's disasters—stems from this moment.

Agamemnon's Key Traits

Strengths

Legitimate authority: Highest-ranking Greek commander
Organisational ability: United Greek forces for expedition
Political skill: Assembled massive coalition
Not cowardly: Does fight (unlike Paris)
Eventually admits error: Book 9 offers compensation

Flaws

Greedy: "Unequalled in your greed" (Achilles, 1.122)
Arrogant: Dismisses Apollo's priest, insults prophet
Poor judgement: Creates crisis after crisis
Insecure: Can't bear being without a prize
Vindictive: Takes Briseis to humiliate Achilles publicly

The Quarrel: Agamemnon's Defensive Aggression

When Achilles challenges him, Agamemnon doesn't defend his decisions—he ATTACKS. Watch how he escalates rather than reconciles:

'Run away then, if you must! I am not going to beg you to stay on my account... To me you are the most hateful of all the Greek kings. You are always spoiling for a fight or a war... Go home then with your ships and your men and lord it over your Myrmidons. I have no use for you; your anger means nothing to me. But let me tell you this... I shall come in person to your hut and take away the beautiful Briseis, your prize, so that you may learn just how much more powerful I am than you.'

— Agamemnon, Book 1, Rieu lines 173-185

Breaking Down the Escalation

"Run away then": Calls Achilles a coward—devastating insult to greatest warrior
"To me you are the most hateful": Makes it PERSONAL—not just policy disagreement
"always spoiling for a fight": Accuses Achilles of being a troublemaker
"I have no use for you": Dismisses Achilles' entire contribution to war effort
"I shall come in person": Will humiliate Achilles publicly, not just seize prize
"so that you may learn just how much more powerful": Pure dominance display—wants to terrorise

Why Agamemnon Does This

Pride: Can't bear being publicly challenged by a subordinate
Insecurity: Knows Achilles is better warrior—must assert rank
Zero-sum thinking: If Achilles gets honour, Agamemnon loses it
Makes example: "others may shrink from... talking back to me" (1.186)

Agamemnon's Fundamental Problem

Agamemnon confuses AUTHORITY (his position) with MERIT (actual excellence). He thinks being commander-in-chief means he deserves the most honour—but honour comes from achievement, not rank.

'I am willing to give her up, if that appears the better course. I want the army to be spared rather than destroyed. But you must find me another prize at once. I cannot be the only one of the Greeks without a prize. That would be most improper. Look—you can all see for yourselves—my prize is being taken away from me!'

— Agamemnon, Book 1, Rieu lines 116-120

The Flawed Logic

"I want the army to be spared": Sounds noble—but then immediately demands compensation
"I cannot be the only one without a prize": About COMPARISON—relative status, not absolute need
"That would be most improper": Appeals to social rules AFTER violating them (dishonoured priest!)
"my prize is being taken away": Victim mentality—HE caused this by refusing ransom

💡 The Rank vs Merit Problem

Agamemnon thinks: "I'm commander, so I deserve the biggest prize." Achilles thinks: "I fight hardest, so I deserve recognition." Both have legitimate claims. The heroic code has NO ANSWER for when rank and merit conflict. That's why the quarrel is unsolvable—and why it destroys so many lives.

Is Agamemnon Redeemable?

Book 1 shows Agamemnon at his worst. But Homer doesn't make him a simple villain. In Book 9 (outside our text), Agamemnon offers MASSIVE compensation—seven tripods, ten talents of gold, twenty cauldrons, horses, captive women, AND Briseis returned (untouched) PLUS his own daughter in marriage.

What This Shows

He CAN admit error: The compensation is an admission he was wrong
He's desperate: Offers absurd amounts because Greeks are losing badly
But he won't apologise: Blames "delusion sent by Zeus," not his own choice
Achilles refuses anyway: Some violations can't be compensated

Agamemnon Across Books 1 & 3

Book 1: Creates BOTH crises (dishonours Chryses, then Achilles)
Book 3: Doesn't appear—but his leadership failure is WHY the war continues
If Agamemnon had been a better leader, Achilles wouldn't have withdrawn
If Achilles hadn't withdrawn, Greeks might have won quickly
Agamemnon's character flaws have MASSIVE consequences

Hector: The Responsible Hero

Who Is Hector?

Eldest son of Priam, Troy's greatest defender, Paris's older brother. Hector is everything Paris isn't: courageous, responsible, respected. He didn't cause the war, but he's fighting to protect his city, family, and people. Book 3 shows him at his best—calling out cowardice and trying to end the war honourably.

Hector is the Iliad's most SYMPATHETIC character. He's not fighting for glory or revenge—he's defending his home. Homer makes us care about him precisely so his eventual death (Book 22) will hurt more.

'Paris, you handsome woman-crazy impostor, why were you ever born? Why did you never die unwed? That is what I could have wished; it would have been far better than to see you live on as you do, a public disgrace. I can just imagine the jeers of our enemies... They thought we had a champion in the field because you are good-looking. But you have neither pluck nor perseverance.'

— Hector to Paris, Book 3, Rieu lines 39-45

Why This Speech Is Devastating

"handsome woman-crazy impostor": Your ONLY skill is seducing women—you're FAKE as a warrior
"why were you ever born?": Wishes Paris didn't exist—ultimate sibling rejection
"died unwed": If Paris had died young, Troy wouldn't be at war
"public disgrace": Everyone knows you're worthless—not just me
"jeers of our enemies": Hector is ASHAMED—Paris makes Troy look ridiculous
"good-looking... But you have neither pluck nor perseverance": Beauty without courage = worthless

💡 Why Hector's Anger Matters

Hector is LOYAL to Troy and family—but even he can't defend Paris. This speech shows Hector's values: courage, perseverance, taking responsibility. Paris has none of these. Hector must fight to defend a brother he's ashamed of and a war he knows is unjust.

Hector's Key Traits

Strengths

Courageous: Faces danger without divine protection
Responsible: Fights for city, not personal glory
Realistic: Knows Troy's weaknesses, Paris's flaws
Respected: Trojans WANT to follow him
Family-oriented: Loves wife, son, parents
Principled: Tries to end war honourably (Book 3 duel)

Limitations

Bound by duty: Can't refuse to fight even when war is unjust
Defending the indefensible: Paris caused this—Hector suffers for it
Can't control his brother: Paris won't listen to reason
Doomed: Knows he'll die but fights anyway
Caught between family and justice: Should he defend Troy or condemn Paris?

Hector as Contrast to Greek Leaders

Book 3 doesn't show us Hector fighting—it shows us Hector LEADING. Compare his leadership to Agamemnon's:

Aspect	Agamemnon (Book 1)	Hector (Book 3)
Motivation	Personal honour and prizes	Protecting city and family
When challenged	Escalates, takes revenge	Shames Paris into action
Treats subordinates	Dismisses, threatens, humiliates	Honest criticism but seeks solutions
Values	Rank, authority, status	Courage, responsibility, community
Leadership style	"Obey because I'm commander"	"Follow because it's right"

Why This Contrast Matters

Homer shows us TWO types of leadership. Agamemnon leads through AUTHORITY—"do this because I'm in charge." Hector leads through EXAMPLE—"do this because it's necessary and I'm doing it too." Guess which one gets better results?

Hector's Tragic Position

Hector is fighting a war he didn't start, defending a brother he's ashamed of, in a city that will fall. He KNOWS all this—but fights anyway because it's his duty.

[After Paris proposes the duel] Hector was delighted when he heard his brother's words. He went out into no man's land, holding his spear by the middle, and made the Trojan ranks sit down.

— Book 3, Rieu lines 76-78

Why Hector Is "Delighted"

Finally, a solution: Single combat could END the war honourably
Paris taking responsibility: For once, Paris isn't hiding behind others
Chance for peace: No more Trojans dying for Paris's mistake
Restoring honour: If Paris wins (unlikely), he proves himself; if he loses, justice is served

💡 The Tragedy of Book 3

Hector's delight is short-lived. Aphrodite rescues Paris, the duel resolves nothing, and the war continues. Hector must keep fighting a war he knows is unjust, defending a brother who doesn't deserve it, in a doomed cause. That's his tragedy—not that he dies (everyone dies), but that his courage and responsibility achieve nothing.

Hector vs Achilles: The True Contrast

Though they don't interact in Books 1-3, Hector and Achilles are SET UP as perfect opposites. Understanding both makes their eventual confrontation (Book 22) more powerful.

Achilles

Fights for personal kleos (glory)
Chooses death at Troy for eternal fame
Withdraws when dishonoured—lets others die
Individualistic—"best of the Greeks"
Unforgiving—rejects compensation
Has divine protection (Thetis)

Hector

Fights for community (Troy, family)
Knows he'll die—fights anyway out of duty
Keeps fighting despite personal cost
Communal—"defender of Troy"
Pragmatic—seeks honourable solutions
No divine parent—just human courage

Why Hector Must Die

The Iliad's tragedy is that Hector—the most decent, responsible character—dies horribly at Achilles' hands (Book 22). Homer makes us care about Hector IN Books 1-3 precisely so his death will devastate us. Good people die in war. Responsible heroes fail. That's the point.

Paris: The Beautiful Coward

Who Is Paris?

Trojan prince, Hector's younger brother, cause of the entire war. Paris judged the divine beauty contest (choosing Aphrodite), received Helen as reward, and brought her to Troy—starting a ten-year war. Handsome, divinely favoured, but utterly lacking in courage or responsibility. Book 3 is HIS book—and Homer uses it to show exactly what kind of "hero" he isn't.

Paris is the Iliad's ANTI-HERO. He's everything a Homeric warrior shouldn't be: cowardly, self-indulgent, dependent on divine rescue. Yet he's also the most divinely protected character in the poem. The contrast is deliberate—Homer is showing how unfair the heroic world is.

When godlike Paris saw Menelaus come out into the open, his heart sank and he recoiled into the ranks of his own men to save his life, like a man who has come across a snake in a mountain glen and shrinks back with trembling limbs and the blood receding from his cheeks.

— Book 3, Rieu lines 30-37

The Snake Simile: Perfect Characterisation

"his heart sank": Emotional collapse—fear overwhelms him immediately
"recoiled into the ranks": RUNS AWAY—hides behind other warriors
"to save his life": Survival instinct overrides honour completely
"like a man who has come across a snake": The VICTIM imagery—but Paris CAUSED this war!
"trembling limbs and blood receding": Physical symptoms of terror—visceral cowardice

💡 The Irony of the Snake

Paris reacts to Menelaus like someone encountering a SNAKE—something dangerous you flee from. But Paris IS the snake! HE'S the danger who infiltrated Menelaus's home, violated guest-friendship, and stole his wife. The simile shows how completely Paris misunderstands his own role in this tragedy.

Paris's Key Traits

"Strengths" (Such As They Are)

Handsome: "Godlike Paris"—physically beautiful
Divinely favoured: Aphrodite protects him constantly
Good with bow: Skilled archer (less "honourable" weapon)
Charismatic: Can seduce Helen, charm people
Self-aware (sometimes): Book 6 admits he's been lazy

Flaws (Numerous)

Cowardly: Runs from fight immediately
Irresponsible: Caused war, won't take ownership
Self-indulgent: Prioritises pleasure over duty
Deflects blame: "It's Aphrodite's fault!"
Shameless: Not embarrassed by his cowardice
Dependent: Always needs rescue (Aphrodite, Hector, gods)

Paris's "Defence": Blaming the Gods

After Hector's devastating insult, Paris offers a response that perfectly captures his character: he doesn't deny cowardice—he just deflects responsibility.

'You are right to rebuke me, Hector; your heart is always as hard as an axe... But do not taunt me with the beguiling gifts of golden Aphrodite. The glorious gifts the gods give of their own accord are not to be spurned, though no one would choose them of his own free will.'

— Paris to Hector, Book 3, Rieu lines 59-65

Breaking Down the Deflection

"You are right to rebuke me": Admits Hector's point—but doesn't apologise or change
"your heart is always as hard as an axe": Subtle criticism—"you're too harsh"
"do not taunt me with... Aphrodite": Blames his beauty on the goddess—"not MY fault I'm attractive!"
"The glorious gifts the gods give": Frames divine favour as obligation, not choice
"not to be spurned": Can't refuse what gods give—removes his agency
"no one would choose them": Claims he didn't WANT to be handsome/favoured (obviously false)

What Paris Reveals

No ownership: Everything is someone else's fault (gods, fate, circumstance)
Passive victim mentality: "Things happen TO me"
Conditional bravery: Only offers to fight AFTER being publicly shamed
No mention of consequences: Doesn't acknowledge men dying for his mistake

The Duel: Paris Loses (And Gets Rescued)

When Paris actually fights Menelaus, it goes EXACTLY as expected. Menelaus dominates. Paris is seconds from death. Then Aphrodite cheats.

He seized him by his horsehair crest and, swinging him round, began to drag him into the Achaean lines. The embroidered strap that was fastened below his chin was throttling Paris, drawn tight by the chinpiece of his helmet. And Menelaus would have dragged him off and won immeasurable glory, if Aphrodite had not been quick to observe her son's plight. She snapped the strap... But Aphrodite caught up Paris with the greatest ease, as a goddess can, hid him in a thick mist and set him down in his own perfumed bedroom.

— Book 3, Rieu lines 369-382

Why This Scene Defines Paris

"throttling Paris": He was LOSING—being strangled to death
"Menelaus would have... won": Paris would've died without intervention
"if Aphrodite had not been quick": Divine rescue—AGAIN
"with the greatest ease, as a goddess can": What took Menelaus huge effort, goddess does casually
"hid him in a thick mist": Made invisible—other Greeks see him vanish
"set him down in his own perfumed bedroom": Straight from battlefield to BED—priorities!

Paris Never Earns Anything

Paris gets Helen through divine gift (Judgement). He survives the duel through divine rescue (Aphrodite). He keeps Helen through divine coercion (Aphrodite forces her). He NEVER earns anything through his own merit or courage. Everything is given to him or done for him. That's what makes him contemptible—not that he's weak, but that he's DEPENDENT and UNGRATEFUL.

Paris After the Rescue: Shameless

What does Paris do after being rescued from certain death? Does he feel shame? Gratitude? Fear? No. He wants sex.

[After Helen confronts him] Paris replied: 'Wife, don't be too hard on me with your reproaches... Come now, let us go to bed and take our pleasure. Never have I felt such desire for you, not even when I first carried you off from lovely Lacedaemon and sailed away with you... and made love to you on the island... Such is the desire that has me now in its grip.'

— Paris to Helen, Book 3, Rieu lines 438-447

The Audacity

"don't be too hard on me": Asks for sympathy after being rescued from his own cowardice
"Come now, let us go to bed": Sexual desire is his immediate response to near-death
"Never have I felt such desire": Being saved from death makes him HORNY
"not even when I first carried you off": Reminds her of kidnapping—romanticises the crime!
"Such is the desire that has me now": Makes it about HIS desire—Helen's feelings irrelevant

💡 Why This Is So Wrong

Paris just lost a duel. Thousands of men are dying because of him. He was rescued by divine cheating (everyone watching knows he lost). And his response? "Let's have sex!" No shame. No gratitude. No awareness of the suffering he's caused. Just lust. This is why even Helen despises him.

Paris vs Hector: The Brother Contrast

Homer deliberately places these brothers side-by-side to show the spectrum of masculinity and heroism. Everything Hector is, Paris isn't.

Trait	Hector	Paris
Courage	Faces death willingly	Runs from first sight of danger
Responsibility	Defends city he didn't endanger	Caused war, takes no ownership
Values	Duty, family, community	Pleasure, beauty, comfort
Fighting style	Close combat (honourable)	Archery (distant, "safer")
Divine favour	None—just human courage	Constantly rescued by Aphrodite
How others see him	Respected, admired, loved	Mocked, despised, tolerated

Why Both Brothers Matter

Hector shows what Troy COULD be—courageous, honourable, worth defending. Paris shows what it ACTUALLY is defending—a selfish prince who caused disaster. The tragedy is that Hector dies (Book 22) defending Paris's mistake. Good men die for bad men's choices. That's war.

Helen: Trapped Between Two Worlds

Who Is Helen?

Daughter of Zeus (some versions), most beautiful woman in the world, originally wife of Menelaus. Now with Paris in Troy—though whether she came willingly or was forced (by Aphrodite or Paris) is deliberately ambiguous. Both Greeks and Trojans blame her for the war, and she blames herself most of all. Book 3 shows her self-awareness, powerlessness, and deep unhappiness.

Helen is the most COMPLEX character in Books 1-3. She's simultaneously victim and participant, prize and person, blamed by everyone and most guilty in her own eyes. Homer makes her HUMAN—intelligent, self-aware, and trapped in circumstances beyond her control.

Iris found Helen in her room. She was weaving a great web of purple double width, into which she was working many of the struggles that the horse-taming Trojans and the bronze-clad Achaeans had undergone for her sake at the hands of Ares.

— Book 3, Rieu lines 125-128

The Weaving: Helen as Poet

"great web of purple double width": Purple = royal, expensive—maintains high status despite blame
"working many of the struggles": She's DOCUMENTING the war—like a historian
"for her sake": Emphasises she's AWARE—constant reminder of her guilt
"at the hands of Ares": War god—she knows men are dying
Weaving = storytelling: Homer makes Helen a POET figure—she's preserving kleos through art

💡 Meta-Poetic Moment

Helen weaving the war's story = Homer TELLING the war's story. Both preserve kleos through their art. Homer gives Helen creative agency even when she lacks physical agency. She can't control the war, but she can RECORD it. This makes her more than just "the prize"—she's a conscious witness bearing testimony.

Helen's Self-Hatred

When Iris (disguised as old servant) summons Helen to watch the duel, Helen's response reveals her deepest feelings: guilt, regret, self-loathing.

A sudden nostalgia for her first husband, her parents and her city came over her. She veiled herself in her silvery white mantle, left the house in tears... She looked for her brothers, Castor and Polydeuces, but failed to see them, though they were already hidden by the life-giving earth in their own country, Lacedaemon.

— Book 3, Rieu lines 139-145, 236-238

The Tragedy of Her Dead Brothers

Helen looks for Castor and Polydeuces among the Greeks
She DOESN'T KNOW they're already dead (died in different myth/earlier)
Homer tells US (the audience) but not Helen—dramatic irony
They died defending their sister's honour—casualties of her "choice"
She's lost: brothers, daughter (Hermione, mentioned line 175), husband, homeland

She dissolved in tears and said: 'Alas for me! I am doomed by the evils that have come upon me. Would that a dreadful death had been my lot when I followed your son here and left my home, my family, my little daughter and the companions of my own age. But that was not to be; and now I am worn out with weeping.'

— Helen to Priam, Book 3, Rieu lines 172-176

Breaking Down Helen's Grief

"I am doomed by the evils": PASSIVE construction—things happened TO her, she didn't choose
"Would that... death had been my lot": Wishes she'd died rather than come to Troy
"when I followed your son": "Followed" = ambiguous—chosen or compelled?
"my little daughter": Hermione, left behind—maternal grief
"companions of my own age": Lost her friends, her community
"now I am worn out with weeping": Chronic suffering—ten years of guilt

Helen's Self-Blame

Notice: Helen doesn't blame Paris, Aphrodite, or fate. She blames HERSELF. "I am doomed by the evils"—she sees herself as cursed, contaminated, bringing destruction. This self-hatred is why she's so harsh on Paris later. She despises him partly because she despises HERSELF for being associated with him.

The Teichoscopia: Helen's Intelligence

When Priam asks Helen to identify the Greek warriors, she demonstrates impressive knowledge and memory. She's not just a pretty face—she's INTELLIGENT and observant.

'That is Agamemnon son of Atreus, a good king and a staunch warrior. He was my brother-in-law too, shameless creature that I am—if all that was not just a dream.'

— Helen identifying Agamemnon, Book 3, Rieu lines 178-180

What This Reveals

"a good king and a staunch warrior": Fair assessment—recognises Agamemnon's strengths
"my brother-in-law": Emphasises family connection she destroyed
"shameless creature that I am": Constant self-criticism—can't escape guilt
"if all that was not just a dream": Questions reality—dissociation from past life

💡 Priam's Kindness

Priam responds: "No, dear child, I do not blame you. It is the gods I blame who brought the war with the Greeks upon us" (lines 164-165). Unlike EVERYONE else (Greeks, Trojans, Helen herself), Priam doesn't blame Helen. He's the only character who shows her compassion. This makes his eventual suffering (losing Hector, Book 24) even more tragic.

Helen Confronts Paris: Devastating Contempt

After Aphrodite forces Helen to go to Paris's bedroom, Helen unleashes her fury. This speech shows her at her most powerful—verbal destruction of the man who "won" her.

'So you are back from the war! I wish you had died out there, beaten by that great soldier who was my husband. There was a time when you used to boast that you were a better man than the warrior Menelaus, with your spear, your hands, your prowess in the field. Why not go back now and challenge him to fight you once again? Ah, but I advise you not to—you might go down before his spear, with all your folly.'

— Helen to Paris, Book 3, Rieu lines 428-436

Breaking Down Helen's Contempt

"I wish you had died out there": Death wish—wants him GONE
"beaten by that great soldier who was my husband": Calls Menelaus "great soldier," Paris just "you"
"There was a time when you used to boast": Past tense—his boasts were hollow
"a better man than... Menelaus": Makes comparison explicit—Menelaus IS better
"Why not go back now and challenge him": Sarcastic dare—knows Paris won't
"you might go down before his spear": Predicts his death if he fights fairly
"with all your folly": Final insult—he's a fool

What This Shows About Helen

She's not fooled: Sees Paris exactly as he is—coward, boaster, failure
She regrets her "choice": Still calls Menelaus "my husband"
She has agency (briefly): Uses words as weapons when physical resistance fails
She's trapped but not complicit: Hates Paris, forced by Aphrodite to stay

Helen's Powerlessness

Despite her intelligence, beauty, and verbal power, Helen is ultimately POWERLESS. She refused Aphrodite—and was threatened. She despises Paris—but must sleep with him. She regrets Troy—but can't leave.

Paris replied: 'Wife, don't be too hard on me... Come now, let us go to bed and take our pleasure...' With that he led the way to the bed, and his wife went with him.

— Book 3, Rieu lines 438-447

The Silence

"his wife went with him": No description of Helen's feelings—just compliance
She doesn't respond: After her devastating speech, she goes silent
Aphrodite's threat worked: Helen tried to refuse—goddess threatened her into compliance
No escape: Can't fight gods, can't fight society, can't even fight Paris effectively

The Tragedy of Helen

Helen is intelligent, self-aware, articulate, and utterly powerless. She sees the war's injustice, her own situation's horror, Paris's worthlessness—and CAN DO NOTHING. She's blamed for everything but controls nothing. She's the prize both sides fight for, but no one asks what SHE wants. That's her tragedy: complete awareness combined with complete powerlessness.

Did Helen Choose?

The great unanswered question: Did Helen go to Troy willingly, or did Aphrodite/Paris force her? Homer deliberately keeps this AMBIGUOUS.

Evidence She Was Forced

"Doomed by evils that came upon me" (passive)
Aphrodite threatens her in Book 3—shows goddess CAN control her
Constant regret and self-hatred
Calls going to Troy her "doom"
Wishes she had died instead
Despises Paris openly

Evidence She Chose

"When I followed your son" (active verb)
Paris says she felt "desire" initially (though he's unreliable)
She's still with Paris after 10 years
Greeks and Trojans blame her—implies responsibility
SHE blames herself most
Homer never explicitly says "forced"

💡 Why the Ambiguity Matters

Homer REFUSES to give a clear answer. Why? Because Helen's situation mirrors every woman's in ancient Greece: Did she choose, or was she compelled? Was it desire or divine manipulation? Can you even separate the two when gods control desire? The ambiguity makes Helen HUMAN—neither pure victim nor evil seductress, but something more complex. She's responsible AND victimised, complicit AND trapped.

Character Comparisons Across Books 1 & 3

Understanding these five characters individually is good. Understanding how they RELATE to each other is ESSENTIAL for essays. Here are the key comparisons that drive the narrative.

Leadership Styles: Agamemnon vs Hector

Both are leaders, but their approaches couldn't be more different. This contrast shows what makes leadership effective—or catastrophic.

Aspect	Agamemnon	Hector
Source of authority	Rank and political power	Respect and personal example
When challenged	Escalates, threatens, humiliates	Criticises honestly, seeks solutions
Motivation	Personal honour and prizes	Defending community and family
Treatment of subordinates	Demands obedience, dismisses concerns	Shames cowardice, encourages courage
Crisis management	Creates crises through pride (Book 1)	Seeks honourable solutions (Book 3 duel)
Result	Best warrior withdraws, Greeks suffer	Trojans fight willingly for him

The Leadership Lesson

Agamemnon has the POSITION but not the QUALITIES. Hector has the QUALITIES but defends a LOST CAUSE (Paris's crime). Homer shows that neither position nor virtue guarantees success. Tragic leadership: good leaders fail, bad leaders cause disasters.

Warrior Ethos: Achilles vs Paris

Achilles and Paris represent OPPOSITE ends of the heroic spectrum. One is the ideal warrior; the other is everything a warrior shouldn't be.

Achilles: The Ideal

Courage: Willing to face death
Skill: "Best of the Greeks"
Honesty: Says what he thinks
Principled: Won't compromise honour
Self-sufficient: Earns everything through merit
Respected: Even enemies acknowledge greatness

Paris: The Anti-Hero

Cowardice: Runs from danger
Mediocrity: Loses every honest fight
Deflection: Blames gods for choices
Self-indulgent: Prioritises pleasure
Dependent: Constantly rescued
Mocked: Even allies despise him

💡 The Divine Favour Irony

Achilles (who DESERVES divine favour through his excellence) has less divine protection than Paris (who deserves nothing). Thetis helps Achilles once in Book 1. Aphrodite rescues Paris CONSTANTLY. Homer shows the universe is UNFAIR—the worthy suffer while the unworthy are protected. That's part of the tragedy.

Brother Dynamics: Hector & Paris vs Achilles & Agamemnon

Both pairs show how family/close relationships strain under pressure. But the dynamics are inverted.

Hector & Paris (Blood Brothers)

Actual siblings—bound by family
Hector ASHAMED of Paris
Must defend brother he despises
Honest confrontation (Book 3)
Paris caused problem; Hector suffers
Loyalty despite contempt

Achilles & Agamemnon (Greek Leaders)

Not related—military hierarchy
Mutual HATRED and contempt
Both excellent warriors
Vicious public fight (Book 1)
Both caused problem; army suffers
No reconciliation possible

What This Shows

Family bonds ≠ respect: Hector stuck with Paris despite contempt
Hierarchy breeds resentment: Achilles won't accept subordinate status
Both pairs dysfunction: No model of good male relationships in these books
Personal conflicts = collective suffering: In BOTH cases, many die

Gender and Power: Helen vs The Male Heroes

Helen's situation reveals how the heroic code affects women differently than men. All the male characters have SOME agency—even Paris. Helen has almost none.

How Power Works Differently

Male heroes: Can fight, refuse, withdraw, choose sides
Helen: Can't fight, can't refuse effectively, can't choose her side
Male heroes' honour: Earned through deeds and defended through action
Helen's "honour": Determined by male possession, damaged by male conflict
Male heroes' kleos: Achieved through excellence
Helen's kleos: Infamous—remembered for causing war, not choosing
Male heroes' bodies: Instruments of action (fighting)
Helen's body: Object of desire/blame, controlled by others

The Double Standard

Paris caused the war by taking Helen—but Helen gets blamed more than Paris. Agamemnon's greed caused the plague—but Achilles gets blamed for the Greek losses. Menelaus lost Helen through poor hospitality—but Helen bears the shame. The Iliad shows how blame falls disproportionately on those with least power: women and subordinates.

Using Character Comparisons in Essays

Comparative analysis shows sophistication. Here's how to structure character comparison paragraphs:

Essay Example: Leadership Comparison

"Books 1 and 3 present contrasting models of leadership through Agamemnon and Hector. Agamemnon's authority derives from rank—'I am not going to be outmanoeuvred' (1.185)—but his leadership provokes crisis. When challenged by Achilles, he escalates rather than mediates, taking Briseis 'so that you may learn just how much more powerful I am' (1.185-186). This vindictive assertion of dominance causes the army's best warrior to withdraw. Conversely, Hector's leadership stems from personal example and earned respect. When Paris shows cowardice, Hector responds with honest criticism: 'you have neither pluck nor perseverance' (3.45). Yet rather than simply condemning, Hector shames Paris into action—proposing the duel that could honourably end the war. Both are undermined by circumstances beyond their control (Achilles' mēnis; Aphrodite's intervention), but Agamemnon creates his own crisis while Hector attempts to resolve one created by his brother. Homer demonstrates that effective leadership requires not just authority but wisdom, restraint, and concern for collective welfare—qualities Agamemnon lacks and Hector embodies."

What Makes This Effective

Thesis: Clear comparison with analytical point
Evidence: Specific Rieu quotations from both books
Analysis: Explains HOW quotes support argument
Connection: Links both characters thematically
Sophistication: Acknowledges complexity (both undermined by circumstance)
Conclusion: Broader point about leadership in Homer

Key Takeaways: Character in Books 1 & 3

What You Must Know

Achilles: Greatest warrior whose mēnis drives plot; principled but excessive; causes suffering to prove point
Agamemnon: Commander who confuses rank with merit; greedy, arrogant, poor judgement creates crises
Hector: Responsible defender fighting for community; everything Paris isn't; doomed to die defending unjust cause
Paris: Beautiful coward; caused war, takes no responsibility; constantly rescued by Aphrodite; despised even by allies
Helen: Intelligent, self-aware, powerless; trapped between two worlds; blamed by all (including herself); victim AND participant

Why Character Matters

Homer's characters aren't simple heroes and villains—they're COMPLEX HUMANS with competing motivations, virtues alongside flaws, and legitimate grievances that lead to terrible choices. Understanding character means understanding WHY people act as they do, not just WHAT they do. That's what makes the Iliad timeless: the psychology remains true even when the world changes.