📚 Topic 1: Introduction to the Iliad⏱️ 45 min📊 Stylistic Analysis
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to identify and explain Homer's key literary techniques (formulae, epithets, speeches, and similes), understand how these techniques serve both oral composition and artistic purposes, and analyse their effects in specific passages.
Homer's Poetic Toolkit
The Iliad's literary techniques aren't random stylistic choices—they're sophisticated tools that served the needs of oral composition while creating powerful artistic effects. Understanding these techniques helps you recognise Homer's craftsmanship and analyse how he creates meaning through language.
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Formulae
Ready-made phrases that fit the metre
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Epithets
Fixed descriptive phrases for characters
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Speeches
Direct character dialogue and debate
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Similes
Extended comparisons to everyday life
Dual Function
Every technique in the Iliad serves two purposes: (1) Helping the oral poet compose fluently in performance, and (2) Creating specific literary effects for the audience. Don't see these as contradictory—Homer's genius lies in using oral compositional tools to achieve sophisticated artistic goals.
A formula is a repeated phrase with a fixed metrical shape that expresses a particular idea. Formulae are the fundamental technique of oral composition—they allow the poet to compose rapidly in performance by drawing on a vast repertoire of ready-made phrases.
What Makes Something a Formula?
Repeated: The phrase appears multiple times across the poem, often dozens or even hundreds of times.
Fixed: The wording stays the same (or nearly so) each time it appears.
Metrical: It fits a specific position in the dactylic hexameter line.
Functional: It expresses a complete idea (e.g., "dawn came" or "Achilles spoke").
Common Formula Types
Dawn Formula
ἦμος δ᾽ ἠριγένεια φάνη ῥοδοδάκτυλος Ἠώς
"When early-born rosy-fingered Dawn appeared..."
This formula appears repeatedly to mark transitions to a new day. It's always the same words in the same metrical position. The poet doesn't have to think of new ways to say "dawn came"—he uses this formula automatically and the audience recognises the temporal marker.
Speech Introduction Formula
τὸν δ᾽ ἀπαμειβόμενος προσέφη
"Then answering him, [character] spoke..."
Homer uses standardised phrases to introduce speeches. This gives him time to think about what the character will say while his mouth automatically delivers the introductory formula. The formula fills exactly the first part of the line, leaving room for the character's name and epithet.
Action Formula
βῆ δὲ κατ᾽ Οὐλύμποιο καρήνων
"And he went down from the peaks of Olympus..."
Used for gods descending from Olympus. This formula package tells us someone is leaving the divine realm and entering the human world—a crucial narrative transition delivered in efficient, familiar language.
How Formulae Work in Practice
Formulae exist in systems—groups of related phrases that can be flexibly deployed depending on what the poet needs. Here's an example for referring to ships:
νῆες ἐΰσσελμοι
"well-benched ships"
νῆες ὠκύποροι
"swift-running ships"
νῆες κοῖλαι
"hollow ships"
νῆες μέλαιναι
"black ships"
νῆες θοαί
"swift ships"
νῆες ἀμφίελισσαι
"curved ships"
Each of these formulae has a different metrical shape, so the poet can choose the one that fits where he is in the line. The choice is primarily metrical, not thematic—"swift ships" doesn't necessarily mean the ships are moving fast at that moment; it's the formula that fits the metre.
The Paradox of Formulae
Formulae might seem limiting—doesn't using the same phrases repeatedly restrict creativity? But actually, they're liberating. By not having to invent new phrases for common ideas, the poet can focus creative energy on more important things: plot development, character psychology, dramatic tension, innovative similes.
Think of formulae like grammar—you don't consciously invent new grammatical structures for each sentence. You use standard patterns automatically, which frees you to think about content. Formulae work the same way for the oral poet.
Epithets: Formulaic Character Description
An epithet is a fixed descriptive phrase attached to a character's name. Epithets are a special type of formula that simultaneously identifies a character and provides metrical flexibility. They're one of Homer's most recognisable stylistic features.
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Achilles' Epithets
ποδάρκης Ἀχιλλεύς
"swift-footed Achilles"
δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς
"godlike Achilles"
πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς
"Achilles swift of foot"
Ἀχιλλεὺς φίλος Διί
"Achilles dear to Zeus"
Πηλείων Ἀχιλλεύς
"Achilles son of Peleus"
πόδας ταχὺς Ἀχιλλεύς
"swift-footed Achilles" (different metre)
Each epithet has a different metrical shape, so Homer can choose whichever fits where he is in the line. "Swift-footed Achilles" is used even when Achilles is sitting down—the epithet is chosen for metre, not literal accuracy.
Mental fortitude, military success, cunning intelligence
Agamemnon
Lord of men, wide-ruling, shepherd of the people
Political authority, extensive power, leadership role
Athena
Grey-eyed, daughter of Zeus, unwearied
Divine vision/wisdom, divine parentage, tireless energy
Zeus
Cloud-gatherer, son of Kronos, Olympian
Weather power, genealogy, supreme authority
Helen
Of the white arms, daughter of Zeus, richly-robed
Physical beauty, divine parentage, aristocratic status
When Epithets Matter Thematically
While epithets are usually chosen for metrical reasons, sometimes they create powerful effects—either through meaningful choice or through ironic inappropriateness:
Meaningful Use
When Achilles is called "swift-footed" as he chases Hector around Troy's walls in Book 22, the epithet is suddenly literal and significant. His speed becomes the terrifying force that makes escape impossible.
Effect: A routinely used epithet gains fresh meaning in context, reminding us of what makes Achilles so deadly.
Ironic Use
When Patroclus is called "horseman" or "good at the war cry" while dying in Book 16, the heroic epithets contrast painfully with his helplessness.
Effect: The gap between epithet and reality emphasises mortality—even the greatest warriors become vulnerable.
Don't Over-Interpret Epithets
Students sometimes see deep meaning in every epithet. But remember: most of the time, epithets are chosen for metrical convenience. "Swift-footed Achilles" when Achilles is sitting in his tent isn't ironic or symbolic—it's just the formula that fits the line.
When to analyse epithets: Only when there's a clear connection between the epithet and the immediate context, or when the epithet is used unusually (like a different epithet than normal for a character), or when it's withheld (like when Achilles loses his heroic epithets briefly after Patroclus's death).
Speeches: Direct Discourse in Epic
Nearly half of the Iliad consists of direct speech—characters talking to each other. This is remarkable for ancient poetry. Rather than just narrating what characters think or do, Homer dramatises their interactions through dialogue. Speeches reveal character, advance plot, articulate values, and create emotional engagement.
Why So Much Direct Speech?
Dramatic engagement: Hearing characters speak makes them feel alive and immediate
Character revelation: We understand characters through their own words, not just the narrator's description
Oral performance: Speeches allowed the performer to vary his voice, making the performance more engaging
Ideological exploration: Characters articulate different value systems through debate
Emotional power: The most moving moments come through direct speech (Priam's supplication, Hector's farewell)
Compositional aid: Speeches use different formulae than narrative, giving the poet variety
Types of Speeches in the Iliad
Assembly Speeches
Formal public addresses where characters present arguments to groups. Often highly rhetorical with clear structure.
Example: Achilles' speech to the assembly in Book 1 denouncing Agamemnon; Nestor's attempts at reconciliation.
Debates
Back-and-forth exchanges where characters argue opposing positions, often about military strategy or moral questions.
Example: The embassy's speeches in Book 9 trying to persuade Achilles, and Achilles' refusal responses.
Exhortations
Speeches encouraging warriors before or during battle. Appeals to honour, shame, duty, or glory.
Example: Hector rallying Trojans throughout; Agamemnon's review of troops in Book 4.
Laments
Formal mourning speeches over the dead or dying. Highly emotional, often by women, expressing grief and loss.
Example: Andromache's laments in Books 6 & 22; Achilles' grief for Patroclus in Book 18.
Prayers
Addresses to gods requesting intervention. Follow conventional patterns: invocation, reminder of past service, request.
Example: Chryses' prayer to Apollo in Book 1; Achilles praying over Patroclus in Book 16.
Taunts
Boasts over defeated or fleeing enemies. Assert dominance and dishonour opponents.
Example: Warriors boasting over kills throughout; Hector's taunt over dying Patroclus in Book 16.
Farewells
Intimate personal speeches, often between family members, before departure or death.
Example: Hector's farewell to Andromache in Book 6; dying speeches in battle scenes.
Counsels
Advisory speeches where elder statesmen offer wisdom or suggest courses of action.
Example: Nestor's frequent advice; Polydamas counselling Hector in Book 18.
Soliloquies
Characters thinking aloud to themselves, revealing internal conflict and decision-making.
Example: Hector's internal debate before facing Achilles in Book 22; Odysseus debating strategy.
A Detailed Example: The Embassy to Achilles (Book 9)
Book 9 shows Homer's sophistication with speeches. Three envoys try to persuade Achilles to return to battle, each using different rhetorical strategies:
Odysseus
Appeals to reason and material gain. Lists the magnificent gifts Agamemnon offers. Emphasises the Greek army's desperate need and the glory Achilles will win by killing Hector.
Strategy: Practical, transactional, focuses on tangible benefits
Phoenix
Appeals to emotion and personal relationship. Reminds Achilles of their bond (Phoenix helped raise him). Tells the cautionary tale of Meleager, who refused help until too late and lost honour.
Appeals to shame and social obligation. Bluntly tells Achilles he's being excessive—people accept compensation for murdered family members, yet Achilles won't accept it for a girl. Invokes guest-friendship.
Strategy: Direct, shame-based, appeals to social norms
Achilles rejects all three approaches, showing that his anger goes deeper than material compensation can address. The variety of rhetorical strategies makes the speeches dramatically engaging while revealing that Achilles' values have fundamentally changed—the traditional heroic appeals no longer work on him.
Similes: Windows to Another World
Homeric similes (or "epic similes") are extended comparisons that open windows from the world of war to the world of peace. They're one of Homer's most distinctive and powerful techniques—moments where the narrative pauses to compare warriors, battle scenes, or emotions to images from everyday life.
World of War
Achilles raging through Trojan ranks, killing indiscriminately, unstoppable in his fury
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World of Peace
A lion attacking a farmstead, driven by hunger, killing livestock despite the farmers' efforts to drive it away
Similes create multiple effects simultaneously: they provide breathing space in intense battle sequences, they connect the heroic world to the audience's everyday experience, they add emotional texture, and they create meaning through the specific details chosen for comparison.
Detailed Simile Analysis
Simile from Book 16: Patroclus and Trojans Fighting
As when a great wave from the sea, heavy with thunder,
crashes down on a swift ship, and all the vessel
is hidden in foam, and the terrible blast of the wind
roars in the sail, and the sailors' hearts tremble with fear
for they are carried just barely beyond death—
so were the Trojans' hearts shaken in their chests.
What's being compared: The Trojans' fear as Patroclus attacks ≈ Sailors in a storm
Why it works: Both involve overwhelming force, helplessness, proximity to death. The sailors' perspective makes us sympathise with the Trojans' terror rather than just celebrating Patroclus's success.
Additional effect: The simile takes us from battlefield to sea, from bronze age warfare to the timeless experience of human vulnerability before nature's power. This universalises the emotion.
Simile from Book 22: Achilles Chasing Hector
As when a mountain hawk, lightest of winged creatures,
easily swoops after a trembling dove,
and the dove flees before him in terror, but the hawk
screaming close behind, strikes again and again,
his heart driving him to seize it—
so Achilles flew straight for Hector in his fury.
What's being compared: Achilles pursuing Hector ≈ Hawk hunting dove
Why it works: Captures the speed difference, the inevitability, the predator-prey dynamic. The dove's terror parallels Hector's fear. The hawk's repeated strikes mirror Achilles' relentlessness.
Emotional effect: We see this as natural behaviour—hawks hunt doves—which makes Achilles' hunting of Hector feel like an expression of natural law, terrible but inescapable.
Common Simile Sources
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Lions
Warriors compared to lions attacking flocks—emphasising ferocity, courage, predatory nature
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Fire
Armies or heroes like wildfire—consuming, unstoppable, spreading destruction
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Water
Armies as rivers/waves—suggesting overwhelming force, collective power
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Storms
Battles as storms—chaos, violence from above, divine anger
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Wolves
Warriors as pack hunters—coordinated, savage, efficient killers
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Harvest
Warriors cutting down enemies like reapers cutting grain—organised slaughter
Heroes standing firm like mountains—immovable, towering, enduring
What Similes Accomplish
Emotional Connection
Similes from everyday life (farming, herding, storms, craftwork) connect the heroic world to the audience's experience. We may never fight in Bronze Age warfare, but we understand storms, predators, and harvest—so we understand the warriors' experiences through these comparisons.
Breathing Space
Similes provide relief from relentless battle description. Just when we're exhausted by combat, Homer takes us to a peaceful farm or seascape. This makes the long battle sequences sustainable and prevents emotional fatigue.
Humanising Effect
Similes often humanise warriors by comparing them to vulnerable things—frightened animals, storm-tossed sailors, farmers working. This creates sympathy even for enemies and emphasises shared humanity beneath the heroic façade.
Perspective Shift
Similes zoom out from individual combat to show larger patterns or zoom in to show detail. A warrior becomes a lion, but then we see the lion's cubs waiting, which reminds us of the warrior's family—suddenly individual death has cosmic ripples.
Synthesising the Techniques: How They Work Together
Homer's literary techniques don't exist in isolation—they work together to create the Iliad's distinctive voice and power. Understanding how these techniques combine is crucial for sophisticated literary analysis.
Technique Combination
How They Work Together
Example
Formulae + Similes
Formulae provide the narrative framework; similes break that framework to create emphasis and emotional depth. The contrast between predictable formula and surprising simile makes both more effective.
Standard battle formulas suddenly interrupted by an extended simile comparing a warrior to a lion—the shift grabs attention
Epithets + Character Development
Fixed epithets establish baseline character traits; changes in epithet use or speeches that contradict epithets show development. When "swift-footed" Achilles refuses to fight, the epithet reminds us what he's withholding.
Achilles keeps his heroic epithets even while refusing to be heroic—highlighting the tension between his identity and his choices
Speeches + Similes
Speeches reveal internal states directly; similes reveal them indirectly through comparison. Together they create both explicit and implicit characterisation.
Hector's brave speech to Andromache in Book 6, followed by similes of doomed warriors, creates dramatic irony—we see his courage and his fate simultaneously
Formulae + Variation
The regular pattern of formulae makes any variation significant. When Homer departs from expected formulas, we notice—and that departure carries meaning.
When a character dies without the usual death formula, the abruptness emphasises the randomness of war
For Your Essays: Analysing Literary Techniques
How to Write About Homeric Techniques
Always explain the effect: Don't just identify a technique—analyse what it accomplishes. "Homer uses a simile" is description; "Homer's lion simile emphasises Achilles' predatory fury and makes his violence feel natural rather than monstrous" is analysis.
Connect technique to meaning: Show how the technique serves the poem's themes. "The formulaic epithets for Hector ('of the shining helmet') establish his warrior identity, which makes his domestic scenes with Andromache more poignant—he must abandon home for the battlefield his epithets define him by."
Use specific examples: Quote or closely paraphrase the actual text. "In Book 16, Homer compares the Trojans to storm-tossed sailors (lines 384-388), which creates sympathy for them despite their role as enemies."
Acknowledge dual function: Sophisticated analysis recognises that oral techniques serve both compositional and artistic purposes. "While epithets are primarily chosen for metre, 'swift-footed Achilles' gains thematic resonance when he finally returns to battle in Book 20."
✅ Good Analysis
"Homer's extended simile comparing Achilles to a lion (Book 20.164-173) serves multiple purposes: it emphasises his return to his natural predatory state after withdrawal, connects his individual fury to the animal world's amoral violence, and creates sympathy for his Trojan victims by depicting them as helpless prey."
⚠️ Weak Analysis
"Homer uses a simile comparing Achilles to a lion. This shows he is brave and strong. Lions are powerful animals so this means Achilles is powerful too."
Too basic—doesn't explore the specific details or effects of the comparison
❌ Over-interpretation
"When Homer calls Achilles 'swift-footed' while he's sitting in his tent, this is deeply ironic, showing that Achilles has betrayed his essential nature and become the opposite of what his epithet claims."
Reads too much into formulaic language—epithets are often chosen for metre, not symbolism
Sample Essay Paragraphs Using Technique Analysis
Example 1: Using Similes to Discuss Theme
Question: How does Homer present the tragedy of war in the Iliad?
Homer's similes frequently reveal war's tragic dimension by connecting battlefield violence to peaceful domestic life. When he compares warriors falling in battle to trees being felled by woodsmen (Book 13.389-391), the simile initially seems to glorify the warriors' strength and stature. However, the image of productive labour—men working together to provide timber for their community—contrasts painfully with the destructive reality: these "trees" are young men being cut down uselessly. The simile forces us to see death not as glorious but as waste, productive potential destroyed. Similarly, when dying warriors are compared to poppies bowing under rain (Book 8.306-308), the delicate natural imagery emphasises vulnerability and the pathos of young life extinguished. Through such similes, Homer systematically undercuts any simple glorification of warfare, reminding us that heroes are also sons, husbands, and fathers whose deaths devastate their communities.
Example 2: Using Speeches to Discuss Character
Question: How does Homer present Achilles' development across the Iliad?
Achilles' speeches reveal his profound transformation from Book 1 to Book 24. In Book 1, his speech to Agamemnon is characterised by raw emotion and personal grievance: he focuses entirely on his own dishonour and makes absolute statements about worth and respect. His language is confrontational and uncompromising. By contrast, when addressing Priam in Book 24, Achilles' speech shows remarkable emotional maturity and philosophical depth. He reflects on human suffering as a universal condition, uses the image of Zeus's urns to explain inexplicable fate, and explicitly connects his own grief to Priam's. The shift from "you have dishonoured me" (Book 1) to "we are both wretched, as the gods will" (Book 24) demonstrates growth from narrow self-concern to tragic wisdom. Moreover, the very fact that Achilles engages in extended, reflective conversation with Priam—rather than delivering the brief, angry retorts of Book 1—shows his capacity for empathy has developed alongside his understanding of mortality.
Example 3: Combining Multiple Techniques
Question: How does Homer make Hector a sympathetic character despite his role as Achilles' enemy?
Homer employs multiple literary techniques to create sympathy for Hector. His epithets—particularly "of the shining helmet" and "tamer of horses"—emphasise his role as defender rather than aggressor; unlike epithets stressing individual prowess, Hector's epithets connect him to his community and its pastoral culture. In speeches, Hector consistently expresses concern for others: he worries about Troy's women becoming slaves (Book 6.450-465) and about his parents' grief (Book 22.82-89), revealing depth of feeling that contrasts with the more self-focused concerns of Greek heroes. Most powerfully, Homer's similes humanise Hector through vulnerability: when he's compared to a serpent waiting in its hole (Book 22.93-96), the image suggests not threatening strength but a creature trying to protect itself. The farewell scene with Andromache (Book 6.390-502) combines intimate domestic speech with the simile of Astyanax being frightened by Hector's helmet—a moment of domestic tenderness that makes Hector's subsequent death feel like the destruction of an entire family's future. Through these accumulated techniques, Hector becomes not merely Achilles' victim but a fully realised tragic figure.
Key Takeaways
Technique = Meaning
Homer's literary techniques aren't decorative—they're fundamental to how the poem creates meaning. Formulae enable oral composition while creating patterns of expectation and variation. Epithets establish identity while sometimes creating irony. Speeches dramatise conflicts and reveal character psychology. Similes connect heroic and everyday worlds while controlling emotional pacing. Understanding these techniques is essential for sophisticated interpretation of any passage in the Iliad.
Essential Points for Revision
Formulae are repeated phrases chosen for metrical position; they're tools of oral composition, not signs of limited vocabulary
Epithets are usually chosen for metre, but sometimes gain thematic significance in specific contexts
Speeches make up nearly half the poem and serve multiple functions: character revelation, plot advancement, thematic exploration
Similes connect war world to peace world, provide emotional relief, and humanise warriors through comparison
All techniques serve dual purposes: helping oral composition AND creating literary effects
The best analysis shows how techniques work together to create meaning, not just in isolation