1.1 The Whole Narrative

📚 Topic 1: Introduction to the Iliad ⏱️ 30 min 📊 Story Summary

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to summarise the complete narrative arc of the Iliad, understand how the epic begins in medias res (in the middle of things), and recognise the key moments that drive the plot forward across all 24 books.

What is the Iliad?

The Iliad is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer, composed around the 8th century BC. Despite its name (which comes from "Ilion", another name for Troy), the poem does not tell the entire story of the Trojan War—instead, it focuses on a mere 51 days in the tenth and final year of the conflict.

At its heart, the Iliad is a poem about anger—specifically the destructive wrath of Achilles, the greatest Greek warrior. This anger sets off a chain of events that leads to devastating consequences for both Greeks and Trojans alike.

Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus' son Achilles
and its devastation, which put pains thousandfold upon the Achaeans...
— Iliad, Book 1 (opening lines)
Key Context
The Trojan War began when Paris of Troy abducted Helen, wife of the Greek king Menelaus. The Greeks sailed to Troy to get her back, laying siege to the city for ten years. The Iliad begins in the final year of this war.

The Complete Story

The Iliad's narrative can be understood as moving through several major movements, each building on Achilles' wrath and its consequences.

Books 1-2: The Quarrel
The Wrath Begins. Agamemnon, commander of the Greek forces, is forced to return his war prize, the girl Chryseis, to her father (a priest of Apollo) after Apollo sends a plague upon the Greek camp. In compensation, Agamemnon seizes Briseis, the war prize of Achilles. Humiliated and dishonoured, Achilles withdraws from battle, taking his elite warriors (the Myrmidons) with him. He prays to his mother, the sea-goddess Thetis, asking her to persuade Zeus to help the Trojans—so the Greeks will realise how much they need him.
Books 3-7: Greeks Without Achilles
Fighting resumes. Paris and Menelaus duel for Helen, but Aphrodite rescues Paris when he's losing. The Trojan Pandarus breaks a truce by shooting an arrow at Menelaus, and full battle erupts. Diomedes has a spectacular day on the battlefield (his aristeia), even wounding the gods Aphrodite and Ares. In Book 6, we see the famous scene of Hector saying farewell to his wife Andromache and infant son Astyanax. Book 7 ends with both sides agreeing to a temporary truce to bury their dead.
Books 8-9: Greek Desperation
Zeus honours his promise to Thetis. The tide turns dramatically against the Greeks. They are driven back to their ships, and Hector threatens to burn the Greek fleet. In desperation, Agamemnon sends an embassy to Achilles in Book 9—Odysseus, Ajax, and Phoenix—offering magnificent gifts and the return of Briseis if he'll return to fight. But Achilles refuses. His honour has been damaged too deeply, and no amount of gifts can restore it. This is a pivotal moment: the hero rejects the traditional heroic values.
Books 10-15: Continued Greek Losses
The Greeks are pushed to breaking point. Book 10 (the Doloneia) tells of a night raid by Odysseus and Diomedes. In Books 11-15, even the greatest Greek warriors—Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus—are wounded. Hector breaks through the Greek defensive wall and the Trojans reach the ships. Poseidon tries to help the Greeks, but Zeus keeps the Trojans victorious.
Books 16-17: Patroclus Dies
The turning point. Achilles' closest companion, Patroclus, can no longer bear to watch the Greeks suffer. He begs Achilles to let him enter battle wearing Achilles' armour, hoping the Trojans will mistake him for Achilles and retreat. Achilles reluctantly agrees. Patroclus has great success, even killing Zeus's son Sarpedon, but Apollo aids Hector in killing Patroclus. Hector strips Achilles' armour from Patroclus's body, and Book 17 depicts a fierce struggle over the corpse itself. The Greeks eventually recover the body but lose the armour.
Books 18-19: Achilles Returns
Wrath redirected. When Achilles learns of Patroclus's death, his grief is overwhelming. His anger now shifts from Agamemnon to Hector—he swears to kill Hector or die trying. His mother Thetis visits Hephaestus, who forges magnificent new armour for Achilles, including the famous Shield of Achilles (described in detail in Book 18). In Book 19, Achilles and Agamemnon publicly reconcile, and Achilles arms himself for battle, despite prophecies that his own death will follow soon after Hector's.
Books 20-21: Achilles' Rampage
Unstoppable fury. Achilles returns to battle like a force of nature. The gods themselves descend to the battlefield, fighting each other. Achilles kills countless Trojans with such savagery that he even fights the river-god Scamander, whose waters are choked with corpses. The Trojans flee back into the city—all except one.
Book 22: Hector's Death
The hero falls. Hector alone remains outside Troy's walls to face Achilles, despite his parents' pleas to come inside. When he sees Achilles approaching, however, his nerve fails and he runs. Achilles chases him three times around the walls of Troy. Finally, with Athena's help (she tricks Hector into thinking he has support), Achilles kills Hector with a spear thrust to the throat. In his rage, Achilles desecrates Hector's body, dragging it behind his chariot back to the Greek camp. He refuses to return the body for proper burial.
Book 23: Funeral Games
Honouring the dead. Achilles holds elaborate funeral games for Patroclus, with contests in chariot racing, boxing, wrestling, archery, and other sports. This book provides a respite from the violence and shows Greek aristocratic culture. Throughout, Achilles continues to abuse Hector's corpse, but Apollo preserves it from decay.
Book 24: Priam's Ransom
The wrath ends. The gods, disturbed by Achilles' treatment of Hector's body, send Thetis to tell Achilles he must accept ransom for it. That same night, Priam, the elderly king of Troy and Hector's father, makes a dangerous journey to Achilles' tent, guided by Hermes. Priam begs Achilles to remember his own father and take pity. The two enemies—one who has lost a son, one who has lost a companion—weep together. Achilles' rage finally breaks, and he returns Hector's body. The epic ends with Hector's funeral, and an eleven-day truce to mourn the dead.
Important Note
The Iliad does NOT include the famous Trojan Horse, the fall of Troy, or Achilles' death. These events happen after the poem ends. The epic begins and ends with funerals—first for the victims of Apollo's plague in Book 1, and finally for Hector in Book 24.

Key Themes and Concepts

Wrath (Menis)

The entire poem is driven by anger—first Achilles' anger at Agamemnon, then his rage against Hector. The poem explores how unchecked wrath leads to catastrophic consequences for individuals and communities.

Honour (Timē)

Achilles' initial withdrawal is about honour, not just Briseis. In the heroic value system, a warrior's honour is measured by the prizes and respect he receives. When Agamemnon takes Briseis, he publicly dishonours Achilles. The question of what constitutes true honour runs throughout the epic.

Glory (Kleos)

Kleos means "glory" or "fame," specifically the eternal renown a hero achieves through great deeds. Achilles faces a choice: long life without glory, or a short life with eternal fame. He chooses kleos.

Mortality and the Human Condition

Unlike the immortal gods, humans must die. This awareness shapes everything the characters do. The most touching moments in the Iliad come when characters confront mortality—Hector's farewell to Andromache, Achilles' grief for Patroclus, Priam's courage in facing his son's killer.

Divine Intervention

The gods constantly interfere in human affairs, taking sides in the war, protecting their favourites, and pursuing their own quarrels. Yet humans still have agency and make meaningful choices, even within the limits set by fate.

War's Brutality and Beauty

Homer presents war as both glorious and horrific. He gives detailed descriptions of deaths in battle, never letting us forget the human cost, while also showing the aristocratic warrior code that makes such violence meaningful to its participants.

The Epic's Structure

Understanding the Iliad's structure helps you see how Homer builds tension and develops themes across the 24 books.

In Medias Res ("In the Middle of Things")

The Iliad begins nine years into the Trojan War, not at the beginning. We learn about earlier events (Paris's abduction of Helen, the gathering of the Greek forces, previous battles) through character speeches and flashbacks. This technique creates immediacy and assumes the audience already knows the broader story.

Ring Composition

The epic is framed by parallel scenes: it begins with a father (Chryses) pleading for his daughter, and ends with a father (Priam) pleading for his son. It opens with a funeral (for plague victims) and closes with a funeral (for Hector). This creates a sense of completion even though the war continues.

The Withdrawal and Return Pattern

Achilles' withdrawal from battle (Books 1-16) and his return (Books 19-24) creates the epic's basic structure. Everything that happens is driven by his absence or presence on the battlefield. Patroclus's death (Book 16) is the pivot point that transforms Achilles from a man nursing wounded pride to one consumed by grief and the desire for vengeance.

Balancing Greek and Trojan Perspectives

Homer gives nearly equal attention to both sides. We see into Trojan homes (Hector and Andromache in Book 6, Priam and Hecuba in Book 24) as well as Greek councils. This creates sympathy for both sides and emphasises the tragedy—both Greeks and Trojans suffer terribly, and we care about warriors on both sides.

Why This Matters
Understanding the complete narrative arc helps you answer essay questions about character development, thematic patterns, and Homer's compositional techniques. You need to see how individual scenes fit into the larger story and how the beginning connects to the end.

Quick Reference: Book-by-Book Summary

Here's a condensed version you can use for revision:

Books 1-2: Quarrel & withdrawal
Books 3-7: Duels & Diomedes
Books 8-9: Embassy to Achilles
Books 10-15: Greek losses mount
Books 16-17: Patroclus dies
Books 18-19: New armour & return
Books 20-21: Achilles' rampage
Book 22: Hector's death
Book 23: Funeral games
Book 24: Priam's ransom