2.1 The Nature of Heroes
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will understand what defines a hero in ancient mythology, how heroes bridge the gap between mortals and immortals, the concept of kleos (glory) and its importance, and why heroes like Heracles/Hercules were central to ancient religion and culture.
What Makes a Hero?
In ancient mythology, a hero wasn't simply someone who performed brave deeds. The term heros (ἥρως) in Greek had specific religious and cultural meaning. Heroes were a distinct category of being - more than mortal, less than divine - who occupied a crucial middle ground in the ancient worldview.
Divine Parentage
Most heroes were demigods - the offspring of a god and a mortal. Heracles was the son of Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene. This divine parentage granted heroes supernatural abilities whilst keeping them fundamentally mortal and thus relatable to ordinary humans.
Exceptional Abilities
Heroes possessed strength, courage, or skills far beyond ordinary mortals. Heracles could strangle serpents as an infant and wrestle lions as an adult. Achilles was invulnerable except for his heel. Odysseus possessed cunning that could outwit even divine opponents.
Yet heroes remained fundamentally mortal. They could be wounded, they experienced pain and loss, and ultimately, most of them died. This mortality made their achievements more impressive - they risked everything in pursuit of kleos.
Key Characteristics of Heroes
Kleos: The Ultimate Goal
The driving motivation for all Greek heroes was kleos (κλέος) - eternal glory or fame. Unlike the Christian concept of salvation, ancient heroes sought immortality through reputation. Their names and deeds would live forever in stories, songs, and religious worship.
Achieving Kleos
Heroes pursued kleos through:
- Great deeds: Slaying monsters, winning wars, founding cities
- Noble death: Dying gloriously in battle rather than of old age
- Divine favour: Earning the respect of gods through excellence
- Cultural impact: Establishing customs, games, or institutions
Achilles faced a choice: a long, peaceful life in obscurity, or a short, glorious life that would make his name immortal. He chose kleos, knowing it meant early death. This choice epitomises the heroic mindset - fame matters more than life itself.
Hero Cults: Worship After Death
Unlike ordinary mortals who became shadows in Hades, heroes could receive worship after death through hero cults. These local religious practices honoured heroes as powerful spirits who could help or harm the living.
Forms of Hero Worship
- Tomb cults: Offerings at the hero's supposed burial site
- Annual festivals: Athletic games or sacrifices on the hero's feast day
- Protective worship: Heroes as guardians of cities or regions
- Healing shrines: Some heroes, like Asclepius, offered medical cures
Hero cults differed from god worship. Heroes received enagismata (offerings to the dead) rather than regular sacrifices. The offerings were made at ground level or in pits, not on raised altars, acknowledging the hero's connection to the earth and death.
Local vs Panhellenic Heroes
Most hero cults were local - Theseus in Athens, Oedipus at Colonus. However, Heracles achieved panhellenic status, worshipped throughout the Greek world. His universal appeal made him the greatest hero of antiquity.
Apotheosis: From Hero to God
The ultimate achievement for a hero was apotheosis - transformation into a god. This rare honour was granted to only the greatest heroes, marking their complete transcendence of mortality.
Examples of Deified Heroes
- Heracles/Hercules: Burned away his mortal parts on a pyre, ascended to Olympus
- Asclepius: God of medicine, originally a mortal healer
- The Dioscuri: Castor and Pollux, became constellation Gemini
- Romulus: Rome's founder, became the god Quirinus
Heracles represents the perfect example of apotheosis. After completing his labours and suffering a painful death, he was welcomed to Olympus, married the goddess Hebe, and became the god of strength and heroism. His transformation showed that exceptional virtue and suffering could overcome even mortality.
Greek Heroes vs Roman Heroes
Whilst Greeks and Romans shared many heroes, they emphasised different qualities based on their cultural values:
Greek Heroic Ideals
- Individual Excellence (Arete) Personal achievement and glory above all else
- Athletic Prowess Strength and skill proven in competition and combat
- Clever Cunning (Metis) Intelligence valued equally with physical strength
- Tragic Nobility Greatness achieved through suffering and sacrifice
- Personal Kleos Individual fame that outlasts death
Roman Heroic Ideals
- Service to State (Virtus) Duty to Rome placed above personal glory
- Military Discipline Organised warfare preferred over individual combat
- Pietas Sacred duty to gods, family, and country
- Practical Achievement Building civilisation and establishing law
- Collective Glory Fame shared with Rome's greatness
Example - Heracles vs Hercules: Greeks celebrated Heracles' individual suffering and personal redemption through the labours. Romans reimagined Hercules as a civilising force who cleared the world of monsters to make way for Roman order and progress. The Greek hero suffered for his own sins; the Roman hero laboured for humanity's benefit.
Why Heroes Mattered to Ancient Societies
Heroes served crucial functions in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Click each category below to explore:
Heroes connected the mortal and divine worlds:
Heroes helped people cope with life's challenges:
For ancient people facing a harsh and unpredictable world, heroes provided inspiration, protection, and meaning. They showed that whilst humans couldn't escape mortality, they could transcend it through excellence, courage, and endurance.
Understanding Heracles in Context
With this understanding of what heroes meant to ancient cultures, we can better appreciate why Heracles/Hercules became the greatest hero of the ancient world:
- He possessed divine parentage (son of Zeus) but remained fundamentally mortal
- His incredible strength was matched by incredible suffering
- He achieved kleos through his twelve labours and countless other deeds
- He founded the Olympic Games, a panhellenic institution
- He received hero cults throughout the Greek world
- He achieved apotheosis, becoming a god after death
- He served both Greek ideals (individual excellence) and Roman values (civilising force)
In the following sections, we'll explore how Heracles embodied and transcended the heroic ideal, becoming not just a hero but the universal hero of the ancient Mediterranean world.
Heroes shaped society and cultural identity: