1.1 Introduction to Ancient Religion

Understanding Ancient Religious Concepts

Ancient Greek and Roman religion was fundamentally different from modern Christianity. The Greeks and Romans were polytheistic, meaning they worshipped multiple gods rather than a single deity. Interestingly, the Greeks didn't actually have a word for 'religion' as we understand it. Instead, they used hiera meaning "holy affairs" and the Romans used religio meaning "the correct worship of the state gods".

The Nature of the Gods

The most striking aspect of ancient gods was their anthropomorphic nature. Unlike the abstract, perfect deity of monotheistic religions, Greek and Roman gods looked and behaved like humans. They experienced human emotions - jealousy, anger, lust, pride - and displayed human weaknesses. The gods were not paragons of virtue; they often behaved terribly, which made them more relatable to their worshippers.

The collective term for all the gods together was the pantheon. Each god had specific responsibilities - Poseidon controlled the sea, Demeter governed agriculture, Apollo presided over music and prophecy. Worshippers would choose which god to approach based on their immediate needs.

Essential Religious Terminology

How Ancient Religion Worked in Practice

Communal vs Private Worship

Unlike modern Christianity with its emphasis on personal prayer and individual salvation, ancient religion was primarily communal. Sacrifices and offerings were made at temples and shrines, and festivals involved the whole city. There was no concept of regular weekly worship like Sunday church services. Instead, religious activity was tied to specific needs, seasons, and civic occasions.

The Importance of Ritual Action

Greek and Roman religion was not about faith or belief in the modern sense. What mattered was performing the correct rituals in the proper way. The phrase do ut des ("I give so that you might give") perfectly captures this transactional approach. Worshippers presented gifts - animal sacrifices, offerings of food, oil and wine, or valuable objects - expecting something in return.

Choosing the Right God

With hundreds of gods available, choosing the right deity for your needs was crucial. A sailor preparing for a voyage would sacrifice to Poseidon/Neptune for safe passage across his domain. A woman in childbirth would pray to Hera/Juno or Artemis/Diana. Farmers depended on Demeter/Ceres for their harvests.

This specificity extended to epithets - additional names that specified which aspect of a god you were invoking. Zeus had dozens of epithets: Zeus Xenios protected guests and strangers, Zeus Horkios oversaw oaths, Zeus Soter was the saviour in times of crisis. Using the wrong epithet might mean your prayer went unanswered.

Anthropomorphism: Gods in Human Form

Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Greek and Roman gods was their anthropomorphic nature. Unlike the transcendent, perfect God of Christianity, ancient deities had human forms, human emotions, and human flaws. They could be petty, jealous, lustful, and vindictive.

Divine Behaviour and Morality

The gods' behaviour often scandalised later Christian writers. Zeus/Jupiter was a serial adulterer who pursued mortal women despite being married to Hera/Juno. Apollo could be vindictive when his pride was wounded. Aphrodite/Venus was caught in adultery with Ares/Mars.

This apparent immorality served several purposes:

• It made the gods more relatable and understandable to humans
• It explained the unpredictability of divine favour
• It reflected the complexities of human nature and society
• It provided entertaining stories that transmitted cultural values

Divine-Human Relationships

The anthropomorphic nature of the gods meant they could interact directly with humans. Gods could appear in disguise, test mortals' hospitality, fall in love with humans, and even have children with them. These demigods or heroes, like Hercules (son of Zeus) or Aeneas (son of Venus), bridged the gap between divine and mortal worlds.

Key Differences from Modern Religion

Understanding Ancient Religious Mentality

To understand Greek and Roman mythology and religion, we must set aside modern assumptions about what religion means. For the ancients:

• Religion was about action (ritual) not belief (faith)
• Gods were powerful but flawed beings, not moral exemplars
• Worship was transactional, not devotional
• Religious practice was communal and civic, not personal and private
• Multiple gods meant multiple options for divine assistance
• Success in life depended on maintaining good relationships with the gods

This religious framework shaped every aspect of ancient life, from politics and warfare to agriculture and family life. Understanding it is essential for making sense of ancient literature, art, and history.